21st Century Chemistry 2nd Second Edition by Kimberley Waldron 9781319251710 1319251714

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• ISBN 10:1319251714

• ISBN 13:9781319251710

• Author:Kimberley Waldro

21st Century Chemistry

21st Century Chemistry 2nd Table of contents:

Chapter 1 The Story of Chemistry: The Scientific Method: Think, Measure, Rethink
1.1 The Scientific Method
This book will help you understand current science-related issues
Scientists follow a system of peer review and reproducibility
The scientific method tests scientific hypotheses
A theory is a well-substantiated and tested hypothesis
Scientists create models that make experimental data easier to understand
1.2 Coming to Terms with the Very Large and the Very Small
Scientific notation allows us to work with really large and really small numbers
natureBOX Alien Bacteria and the Scientific Method
There are two rules to remember when using scientific notation
1.3 Metric Units, Conversion Factors, and Dimensional Analysis
Chemists work with very large numbers of atoms because atoms are very small
The metric system is an agreed-upon method of measurement used around the globe
Conversion factors are fractions that express the same value—in different units—on the top and bottom
1.4 The Metric Epicurean
There are several legitimate ways to express volume and temperature
We use the gram when we measure mass and the second when we measure time
1.5 Juggling Measured Numbers
We can evaluate precision and accuracy for any repeated measurement that has a known standard
Accuracy describes the closeness of a measurement to a known value
Human beings use common sense to interpret results from calculators and scientific instruments
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: How Do We Measure Sea Level?
Chapter 1 Themes and Questions
Chapter 2 Atoms: All about Atoms and What’s Inside Them
2.1 Atoms: The Basis for Everything
All matter is composed of atoms
Atoms are composed of three types of particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons
Scientists define each element by its atomic number—the number of protons its atoms contain
2.2 A Brief Introduction to the Periodic Table
The periodic table is the central organizing principle in chemistry
Scientists make and study transuranium elements in specialized laboratories
2.3 Why Neutrons Matter
Atoms of a given element can contain different numbers of neutrons
Samples of matter from different locations have distinctive distributions of isotopes
Isotopic measurements can reveal answers to questions, such as the origin of marble in ancient monuments
2.4 Electrons: The Most Important Particle for Chemists
Electrons are elusive
Energy levels are a way to imagine the distribution of electrons around the nucleus
The location of an electron with respect to the nucleus determines its role in the atom
2.5 Light and Its Interaction with Atoms
Electrons can be excited to higher energy levels
Light is electromagnetic radiation
The greater the energy of light, the shorter its wavelength
natureBOX Are Cell Phones Safe to Use?
A line spectrum is a pattern of lines of light that is characteristic of a given element
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Have We Improved Our Light Bulbs?
Chapter 2 Themes and Questions
Chapter 3 Everything: The Ways We Organize and Classify Matter
3.1 How Elements Are Distributed in Nature
We can divide the periodic table into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids
The appearance of soil is partly a function of the elements it contains
Like soil, the human body is a mixture of metals and nonmetals
3.2 A Tour of the Periodic Table
Scientists organize the elements vertically and horizontally on the periodic table
Each family of elements on the periodic table has its own family traits
3.3 Categorizing Matter
It is not easy to put all matter into neat categories
In everyday life, pure substances are not truly pure
Mixtures contain more than one pure substance
3.4 Compounds and Chemical Formulas
We can classify matter according to the number of different elements it contains
natureBOX The Problem with Gold Mining
The chemical formula for Adderall can be determined by looking at its structure
3.5 When Substances Change
The three states of matter are gas, liquid, and solid
Many mixtures can be easily separated by physical means
When a chemical change happens, substances become other substances
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: E-Waste
Chapter 3 Themes and Questions
Chapter 4 Bonds: An Introduction to the Forces within Substances
4.1 The Octet Rule
The noble gases are especially stable
Electrons in an atom are either core electrons or valence electrons
Atoms with eight valence electrons have special stability and obey the octet rule
4.2 An Introduction to Bonding
Atoms achieve stability by gaining or losing electrons
Lewis dot diagrams are a way to keep track of electrons
4.3 Ionic Bonds
Atoms gain stability by taking or giving away electrons
The periodic table organizes ions according to charge
Cations and anions combine in a way that balances their charges
Most salts exist as crystals that have a repeating pattern of cations and anions
natureBOX Should We Use Silver Nanoparticles to Reduce Body Odor?
4.4 Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity
Atoms gain stability when they make molecules by sharing electrons in covalent bonds
Covalent bonds can form between atoms of different elements
Scientists depict salts and molecules differently because they have different types of bonds
4.5 Bonding in Metals
For substances that are composed only of metals, metallic bonds hold atoms together
Metals are malleable and conduct electricity
4.6 Determining the Type of Bond between Two Atoms
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to draw electrons toward itself
The proximity of elements on the periodic table is a clue to the type of bond that will form between them
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Collaborative Consumption
Chapter 4 Themes and Questions
Chapter 5 Carbon: Elemental Carbon, Organic Molecules, and Carbon Footprints
5.1 Why Is Carbon Special?
Carbon has special properties because of its small size
A carbon atom can form four bonds
We draw molecules in a way that shows they are three-dimensional
Diamonds are strong thanks to a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds
5.2 Graphite, Graphene, Buckyballs, and the Multiple Bond
A carbon atom can form multiple bonds to other atoms
Carbon atoms form four bonds in various ways
Carbon’s allotropes feature examples of single bonds and multiple bonds
When atoms share more than two electrons, the bonds between them are shorter and stronger
The buckyball is an allotrope of carbon
natureBOX Assessing Carbon Footprints
5.3 Making Sense of Organic Molecules
The most common elements in organic molecules each form a predictable number of bonds
Chemists use line structures to draw organic molecules
5.4 Selected Organic Functional Groups
There is a remarkable diversity of organic molecules
Sulfides contain a sulfur atom in a hydrocarbon framework
Carboxylic acids are an important class of organic molecules with many varied uses
Amines are found in molecules that affect the brain
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Carbon Capture and Sequestration
Chapter 5 Themes and Questions
Chapter 6 Air: A Study of the Gases in Our Atmosphere
6.1 The Nature of Gases
Of the three phases of matter, gases are the simplest
Gas particles move fast and are far apart from one another
Fast-moving gas particles mix together quickly and completely
6.2 Pressure
The pressure that a gas exerts is related to the collisions the gas particles make with their container
Pressure is a force applied to a surface
Atmospheric pressure changes with altitude
A gas particle’s mean free path is the distance it travels between collisions
natureBOX Is Natural Gas the Ideal Energy Resource?
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted on us by air in the environment
6.3 Variables That Affect Gases: Moles, Temperature, Volume, and Pressure
The mole allows us to count very small things, such as atoms and molecules
Four variables dictate the behavior of a gas
6.4 The Gas Laws: An Introduction
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional to one another
If we change the number of moles of a gas, the volume of the gas changes
If we change the temperature of a gas, the volume or pressure changes
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Bees as Gas Detectives
Chapter 6 Themes and Questions
Chapter 7 Chemical Reactions: How We Keep Track of Chemical Changes
7.1 Sparks! The Thermite Reaction
Balanced chemical equations represent chemical reactions
The total number of each type of atom must be the same on both sides of a chemical equation
We add coefficients to reactants and/or products to balance chemical equations
Balancing equations is a trial-and-error process
7.2 Atomic Accounting
We can view a chemical equation from different perspectives
The mole is a counting device that helps us to think on a macroscopic scale
Molar mass is a way to convert mole units to mass units
We can calculate molar mass for any element or compound
7.3 Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry allows us to use chemical equations to perform chemical reactions
We can use chemical equations to scale up or scale down a chemical reaction
Balanced chemical equations obey the law of conservation of mass
natureBOX Two Ozone Holes?
7.4 Chemical Reactions in the Real World
Real chemical reactions are usually not as straightforward as their equations imply
A reaction energy diagram illustrates the progress of a chemical reaction
Reactants must scale an energy hill to become products
Catalysts make chemical reactions go faster
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Cow Flatulence and Global Warming
Chapter 7 Themes and Questions
Chapter 8 Water: Why Water Is Critical for Human Beings and the Planet
8.1 Water Footprints
A water footprint tallies the total water use by a person, a business, a country, or the planet
Fresh water is only a small percentage of all the water on Earth
Much of Earth’s freshwater supply is polluted
In the United States, drinking water is protected by the Safe Drinking Water Act
8.2 The Nature of Liquid Water
Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules
Hydrogen bonds are the strongest type of intermolecular force
Water molecules are polar and experience dipole–dipole interactions
Ice is less dense than water
natureBOX Songbirds and Hydrogen Atoms
8.3 Changing Phases: Water and Ice
Freezing and melting occur at the same temperature
Freezing of water contributes to hurricane-force winds
While a substance changes phase, its temperature remains constant
Heating curves illustrate how phases change
Water has a high specific heat
8.4 Changing Phases: Water and Water Vapor
The boiling point of water depends on altitude
Summary: During phase changes, intermolecular forces are made and broken
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Should We Be Spiking Our Drinking Water?
Chapter 8 Themes and Questions
Chapter 9 Salts and Aqueous Solutions: The Nature of Salts and How They Interact with Water
9.1 Review: The Nature of Salts
Salts are ionic solids
Salts pack tightly into a crystalline lattice
9.2 Polyatomic Ions
Egyptian mummies can help us understand the behavior of salts
Polyatomic ions include multiple atoms and one or more charges
Salts are electrically neutral
9.3 The Hydration of Ions
Water molecules are polar and contain a dipole
Cations and anions are hydrated by water molecules
Most salts easily dissolve in water because salts and water are both polar substances
A dynamic equilibrium exists in a saturated salt solution
9.4 Concentration and Electrolytes
Gatorade is an electrolyte solution
Molarity indicates how much solute is dissolved in a given volume of solvent
There are several ways to express concentration
natureBOX Using Ionic Liquids to Solve Modern Environmental Problems
9.5 Osmosis and Concentration Gradients
Living cells use semipermeable membranes to control the flow of substances through the organism
Concentration gradients for various ions are maintained across cell membranes
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Is It Possible to Drink Too Much Water?
Chapter 9 Themes and Questions
Chapter 10 pH and Acid Rain: Acid Rain and Our Environment
10.1 The Autoionization of Water
There are two ways to depict protons in aqueous solutions
Water molecules can break apart and form ions
10.2 Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale
Acids ionize in water to produce protons
The pH expresses proton concentration
Acidic solutions have pH values less than 7.00
Basic solutions have pH values greater than 7.00
We use the pH scale to describe acid or base strength
What can pink polka-dotted airplanes tell us about the measurement of pH?
10.3 Acid Rain Part I:Sulfur-Based Pollution
Compounds in air dissolve in water and change the water’s pH
Sulfur compounds are one of two major sources of acid rain
Sulfur dioxide can be scrubbed from coal plant flue gases
Some types of coal produce more sulfur dioxide than others
Even clean coal is a dirty, nonrenewable source of energy
natureBOX Cathedral Vinaigrette
10.4 Acid Rain Part II:Nitrogen-Based Pollution
Industrial and agricultural uses of nitrogen disrupt the nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen oxides are by-products of burning gasoline and contribute to acid rain
Catalytic converters reduce the emission of harmful gases from cars
NOx emissions have decreased more slowly than SO2 emissions
10.5 The Effects of Acid Rain
Natural waters have a limited tolerance for added acid or base
Acid rain harms forests as well as bodies of water
Acid rain deprives soils of nutrients and releases toxins that damage trees
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Caught pink Handed
Chapter 10 Themes and Questions
Chapter 11 Nukes: The Fundamentals of Nuclear Chemistry
11.1 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions
We owe our current understanding of radioactivity and nuclear reactions, in large part, to the work of four women
Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions
In a nuclear equation, the neutrons and protons are usually balanced on each side
There are three important types of radioactive decay
11.2 Energy from the Nucleus
Most nuclear reactions produce much more energy than chemical reactions
Chain reactions take place in a nuclear reactor
Uncontrolled chain reactions occur when fission bombs are detonated
11.3 It’s a Wonderful Half-Life
Radon gas is a natural form of radiation
natureBOX Who’s Going to Take Out the Trash?
Half-life is the time it takes for one-half of a radioactive sample to decay
11.4 Living Organisms and Radiation
Nuclear medicine uses radioactive isotopes to treat and diagnose diseases
There are different ways to express radiation dose and exposure
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Are Our Nuclear Power Plants Safe Enough?
Chapter 11 Themes and Questions
Chapter 12 Energy, Power, and Climate Change: The Fundamentals of Nuclear Chemistry
12.1 Energy and Power
Energy can be converted from one form to another
Power expresses energy use over time
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
12.2 Fossil Fuels: What They Are and Where We Get Them 351
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon mixtures
Refineries separate crude oil into usable fractions
12.3 Fossil Fuels and Climate Change
Fuels combust in the presence of oxygen molecules
A car’s fuel economy is related to its power
Climate change is the result of global warming
Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels reached 400 ppm in 2013
12.4 Meeting New Environmental Standards
Paradigm shifts occur when old approaches are challenged
natureBOX Ice-Core Measurements
U.S. CAFE laws set minimum levels on fuel economy for cars and trucks
12.5 Storing Energy in Hydrogen Molecules
Fuel cells use redox reactions to produce electricity and water
Redox reactions combine oxidation and reduction half-reactions
Fuel cells are limited by the availability of hydrogen gas
12.6 Energy from the Sun
The sun is a virtually limitless source of energy
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electrical energy
Rechargeable batteries are electrochemical cells that can be used to store solar energy
Solar energy can be used anywhere the sun shines
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Energy Use by Internet Server Farms
Chapter 12 Themes and Questions
Chapter 13 Sustainability and Recycling: Finding Better Ways to Use (and Reuse) Our Resources
13.1 What Is Sustainability?
Sustainability is the capacity to endure
A life-cycle assessment accounts for the energy and materials that go into making a product
It is possible to estimate the environmental impact of a product or process
Cradle-to-cradle design includes a plan for product reuse
natureBOX Landfills, Paper, and the Menace of Single-Use Water Bottles
13.2 What Is Plastic?
Plastics are made from polymers, which are large organic molecules
Natural rubber is a polymer called polyisoprene
13.3 The Physical Properties of Polymers
The structure of a polymer often dictates its physical properties
Polymers can be designed for rigidity and toughness
Crystallites can make polymers more rigid
13.4 Recyclable and Sustainable Plastics
We can categorize plastics as thermoplastic polymers or thermosetting polymers
Plastics are recycled according to their resin ID codes
Recycled plastics can be made into new products and structures
Waste plastics that are not recycled end up in the landfill or the incinerator
The structure of a polymer dictates its biodegradability
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: The Arrival of Sunshine-Fueled Batteries
Chapter 13 Themes and Questions
Chapter 14 Food: The Biochemistry of the Foods We Eat
14.1 Protein: The Most Critical Nutrient
The human body needs a mixture of fuels for optimal health
Both micronutrients and macronutrients are part of a balanced diet
Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins, which are polymers
Protein chains can fold into globular proteins
Structural proteins play mechanical and structural roles
14.2 How Proteins Are Made
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides
Genes within DNA are transcribed into RNA, which is translated into protein
14.3 Genetic Engineering and GMOs
Genetic engineering alters the DNA of food crops
Genetic engineering is used to grow herbicide- or insect-resistant food crops
natureBOX The Demise of Natural Orange Juice
The use of certain GMOs is controversial
14.4 Carbohydrates
There is an obesity epidemic among children and adults in the United States
Carbohydrates can be simple or complex, and grains can be refined or whole
Digestion breaks down complex carbohydrates into monosaccharides and disaccharides
14.5 Fats
Human beings store energy in the form of fat
Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that are not polymeric
Many properties of fatty acids depend on the number of double bonds the fatty acids contain
Fatty acids are stored in the form of triglycerides
THEgreenBEAT News about the Environment: Indoor Plantations: The Answer to the World’s Food Shortage?
Chapter 14 Themes and Questions
Appendix A Working with Measured Numbers: Significant Figures
Appendix B Answers to Odd-Numbered End-of-Chapter Questions
Glossary
Index
Inside Back Cover
Back Cover

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