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ISBN 10: 1315456515
ISBN 13: 9781315456515
Author: Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion, Keith Morrison
This thoroughly updated and extended eighth edition of the long-running bestseller Research Methods in Education covers the whole range of methods employed by educational research at all stages. Its five main parts cover: the context of educational research; research design; methodologies for educational research; methods of data collection; and data analysis and reporting. It continues to be the go-to text for students, academics and researchers who are undertaking, understanding and using educational research, and has been translated into several languages. It offers plentiful and rich practical advice, underpinned by clear theoretical foundations, research evidence and up-to-date references, and it raises key issues and questions for researchers planning, conducting, reporting and evaluating research. This edition contains new chapters on: Mixed methods research The role of theory in educational research Ethics in Internet research Research questions and hypotheses Internet surveys Virtual worlds, social network software and netography in educational research Using secondary data in educational research Statistical significance, effect size and statistical power Beyond mixed methods: using Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to integrate cross-case and within-case analyses. Research Methods in Education is essential reading for both the professional researcher and anyone involved in educational and social research. The book is supported by a wealth of online materials, including PowerPoint slides, useful weblinks, practice data sets, downloadable tables and figures from the book, and a virtual, interactive, self-paced training programme in research methods. These resources can be found at: www.routledge.com/cw/cohen.
Research Methods in Education 8th Table of contents:
PART 1 The context of educational research
1 The nature of enquiry: setting the field
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The search for understanding
1.3 Conceptions of social reality
1.4 Paradigms
1.5 Positivism
1.6 The assumptions and nature of science
1.7 The tools of science
1.8 The scientific method
1.9 Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method
1.10 Post-positivism
1.11 Alternatives to positivistic and post-positivist social science: naturalistic and interpretive approaches
1.12 A question of terminology: the normative and interpretive paradigms
1.13 Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism and constructionism
1.14 Criticisms of the naturalistic and interpretive approaches
1.15 Postmodernism and post-structuralist perspectives
1.16 Subjectivity and objectivity in educational research
1.17 The paradigm of complexity theory
1.18 Conclusion
2 Mixed methods research
2.1 Introduction
2.2 What is mixed methods research?
2.3 Why use mixed methods research?
2.4 The foundations of mixed methods research
2.5 Working with mixed methods approaches
2.6 Stages in mixed methods research
2.7 Conclusion
3 Critical educational research
3.1 Critical theory and critical educational research
3.2 Criticisms of approaches from critical theory
3.3 Participatory research and critical theory
3.4 Feminist research
3.5 A note on post-colonial theory and queer theory
3.6 Value-neutrality in educational research
3.7 A summary of three major paradigms
4 Theory in educational research
4.1 What is theory?
4.2 Why have theory?
4.3 What makes a theory interesting?
4.4 Types of theory
4.5 Where does theory come from?
4.6 Questions about theory for researchers
4.7 Conclusion
5 Evaluation and research
5.1 Similarities and differences between research and evaluation
5.2 Evaluation research and policy making
5.3 Research, evaluation, politics and policy making
6 The search for causation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Causes and conditions
6.3 Causal inference and probabilistic causation
6.4 Causation, explanation, prediction and correlation
6.5 Causal over-determination
6.6 The timing and scope of the cause and the effect
6.7 Causal direction, directness and indirectness
6.8 Establishing causation
6.9 The role of action narratives in causation
6.10 Researching causes and effects
6.11 Researching the effects of causes
6.12 Researching the causes of effects
6.13 Conclusion
PART 2 Research design
7 The ethics of educational and social research
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ethical principles and the nature of ethics in educational research
7.3 Sponsored research
7.4 Regulatory contexts of ethics
7.5 Choice of research topic and research design
7.6 Informed consent
7.7 Non-maleficence, beneficence and human dignity
7.8 Privacy
7.9 Anonymity
7.10 Confidentiality
7.11 Against privacy, confidentiality and anonymity
7.12 Deception
7.13 Gaining access and acceptance into the research setting
7.14 Power and position
7.15 Reciprocity
7.16 Ethics in data analysis
7.17 Ethics in reporting and dissemination
7.18 Responsibilities to sponsors, authors and the research community
7.19 Conclusion
8 Ethics in Internet research
8.1 What is Internet research?
8.2 What are key ethical issues in Internet research?
8.3 Informed consent
8.4 Public and private matters
8.5 Confidentiality and anonymity
8.6 Ethical codes for Internet research
8.7 Conclusion
9 Choosing a research project
9.1 Introduction
9.2 What gives rise to the research project?
9.3 The importance of the research
9.4 The purposes of the research
9.5 Ensuring that the research can be conducted
9.6 Considering research questions
9.7 The literature search and review
9.8 Summary of key issues in choosing a research topic or project
10 Research questions
10.1 Why have research questions?
10.2 Where do research questions come from?
10.3 What kinds of research question are there?
10.4 Devising your research question(s)
10.5 Making your research question answerable
10.6 How many research questions should I have?
10.7 A final thought
11 Research design and planning
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Approaching research planning
11.3 Research design and methodology
11.4 From design to operational planning
11.5 A framework for planning research
11.6 Conducting and reporting a literature review
11.7 Searching for literature on the Internet
11.8 How to operationalize research questions
11.9 Distinguishing methods from methodologies
11.10 Data analysis
11.11 Presenting and reporting the results
11.12 A planning matrix for research
11.13 Managing the planning of research
11.14 A worked example
11.15 Ensuring quality in the planning of research
12 Sampling
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The sample size
12.3 Sampling error
12.4 Statistical power and sample size
12.5 The representativeness of the sample
12.6 The access to the sample
12.7 The sampling strategy to be used
12.8 Probability samples
12.9 Non-probability samples
12.10 Sampling in qualitative research
12.11 Sampling in mixed methods research
12.12 Planning a sampling strategy
12.13 Conclusion
13 Sensitive educational research
13.1 Introduction
13.2 What is sensitive research?
13.3 Sampling and access
13.4 Ethical issues in sensitive research
13.5 Effects of sensitive research on the researcher
13.6 Researching powerful people
13.7 Researching powerless and vulnerable people
13.8 Asking questions
13.9 Conclusion
14 Validity and reliability
14.1 Defining validity
14.2 Validity in quantitative research
14.3 Validity in qualitative research
14.4 Validity in mixed methods research
14.5 Types of validity
14.6 Triangulation
14.7 Ensuring validity
14.8 Reliability
14.9 Reliability in quantitative research
14.10 Reliability in qualitative research
14.11 Validity and reliability in interviews
14.12 Validity and reliability in experiments
14.13 Validity and reliability in questionnaires
14.14 Validity and reliability in observations
14.15 Validity and reliability in tests
14.16 Validity and reliability in life histories
14.17 Validity and reliability in case studies
PART 3 Methodologies for educational research
15 Qualitative, naturalistic and ethnographic research
15.1 Foundations of qualitative, naturalistic and ethnographic inquiry
15.2 Naturalistic research
15.3 Ethnographic research
15.4 Critical ethnography
15.5 Autoethnography
15.6 Virtual ethnography
15.7 Phenomenological research
15.8 Planning qualitative, naturalistic and ethnographic research
15.9 Reflexivity
15.10 Doing qualitative research
15.11 Some challenges in qualitative, ethnographic and naturalistic approaches
16 Historical and documentary research
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Some preliminary considerations: theory and method
16.3 The requirements and process of documentary analysis
16.4 Some problems surrounding the use of documentary sources
16.5 The voice of the past: whose account counts?
16.6 A worked example: a biographical approach to the history of education
16.7 Conclusion
17 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sectional and trend studies
17.1 Introduction
17.2 What is a survey?
17.3 Advantages of surveys
17.4 Some preliminary considerations
17.5 Planning and designing a survey
17.6 Survey questions
17.7 Low response, non-response and missing data
17.8 Survey sampling
17.9 Longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys
17.10 Strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal, cohort and cross-sectional studies
17.11 Postal, interview and telephone surveys
17.12 Comparing methods of data collection in surveys
18 Internet surveys
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Advantages of Internet surveys
18.3 Disadvantages of Internet surveys
18.4 Constructing Internet-based surveys
18.5 Ethical issues in Internet-based surveys
18.6 Sampling in Internet-based surveys
18.7 Improving response rates in Internet surveys
18.8 Technological advances
19 Case studies
19.1 What is a case study?
19.2 Types of case study
19.3 Advantages and disadvantages of case study
19.4 Generalization in case study
19.5 Reliability and validity in case studies
19.6 Planning a case study
19.7 Case study design and methodology
19.8 Sampling in case studies
19.9 Data in case studies
19.10 Writing up a case study
19.11 What makes a good case study researcher?
19.12 Conclusion
20 Experiments
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Randomized controlled trials
20.3 Designs in educational experiments
20.4 True experimental designs
20.5 Quasi-experimental designs
20.6 Single-case ABAB design
20.7 Procedures in conducting experimental research
20.8 Threats to internal and external validity in experiments
20.9 The timing of the pre-test and the post-test
20.10 The design experiment
20.11 Internet-based experiments
20.12 Ex post facto research
20.13 Conclusion
21 Meta-analysis, systematic reviews and research syntheses
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Meta-analysis
21.3 Systematic reviews
21.4 Methodologically inclusive research syntheses
21.5 Conclusion
22 Action research
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Defining action research
22.3 Principles and characteristics of action research
22.4 Participatory action research
22.5 Action research as critical praxis
22.6 Action research and complexity theory
22.7 Procedures for action research
22.8 Reporting action research
22.9 Reflexivity in action research
22.10 Ethical issues in action research
22.11 Some practical and theoretical matters
22.12 Conclusion
23 Virtual worlds, social network software and netography in educational research
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Key features of virtual worlds
23.3 Social network software
23.4 Using virtual worlds and social media in educational research
23.5 Netography, virtual worlds and social media network software
23.6 Opportunities for research with virtual worlds, social network software and netography
23.7 Ethics
23.8 Guidelines for practice
23.9 Data
23.10 Conclusion
PART 4 Methods of data collection
24 Questionnaires
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Ethical issues
24.3 Planning the questionnaire
24.4 Types of questionnaire items
24.5 Asking sensitive questions
24.6 Avoiding pitfalls in question writing
24.7 Sequencing questions
24.8 Questionnaires containing few verbal items
24.9 The layout of the questionnaire
24.10 Covering letters/sheets and follow-up letters
24.11 Piloting the questionnaire
24.12 Practical considerations in questionnaire design
24.13 Administering questionnaires
24.14 Processing questionnaire data
25 Interviews
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Conceptions of the interview
25.3 Purposes of the interview
25.4 Types of interview
25.5 Planning and conducting interviews
25.6 Group interviewing
25.7 Interviewing children
25.8 Interviewing minority and marginalized people
25.9 Focus groups
25.10 Non-directive, focused, problem-centred and in-depth interviews
25.11 Telephone interviewing
25.12 Online interviewing
25.13 Ethical issues in interviewing
26 Observation
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Structured observation
26.3 The need to practise structured observation
26.4 Analysing data from structured observations
26.5 Critical incidents
26.6 Naturalistic and participant observation
26.7 Data analysis for unstructured observations and videos
26.8 Natural and artificial settings for observation
26.9 Video observations
26.10 Timing and causality with observational data
26.11 Ethical considerations in observations
26.12 Reliability and validity in observations
26.13 Conclusion
27 Tests
27.1 Introduction
27.2 What are we testing?
27.3 Parametric and non-parametric tests
27.4 Diagnostic tests
27.5 Norm-referenced, criterion-referenced and domain-referenced tests
27.6 Commercially produced tests and researcher-produced tests
27.7 Constructing and validating a test
27.8 Software for preparation of a test
27.9 Devising a pre-test and post-test
27.10 Ethical issues in testing
27.11 Computerized adaptive testing
28 Using secondary data in educational research
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Advantages of using secondary data
28.3 Challenges in using secondary data
28.4 Ethical issues in using secondary data
28.5 Examples of secondary data analysis
28.6 Working with secondary data
28.7 Conclusion
29 Personal constructs
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Strengths of repertory grid technique
29.3 Working with personal constructs
29.4 Grid analysis
29.5 Some examples of the use of the repertory grid in educational research
29.6 Competing demands in the use of the repertory grid technique in research
29.7 Resources
30 Role-play and research
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Role-play pedagogy
30.3 What is role-play?
30.4 Why use role-play in research?
30.5 Issues to be aware of when using role-play
30.6 Role-play as a research method
30.7 Role-play as a research method: special features
30.8 A note of caution
30.9 How does role-play work?
30.10 Strategies for successful role-play
30.11 Examples of research using role-play
30.12 A note on simulations
31 Visual media in educational research
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Who provides the images?
31.3 Photo-elicitation
31.4 Video and moving images
31.5 Artefacts
31.6 Ethical practices in visual research
PART 5 Data analysis and reporting
32 Approaches to qualitative data analysis
32.1 Elements of qualitative data analysis
32.2 Data analysis, thick description and reflexivity
32.3 Ethics in qualitative data analysis
32.4 Computer assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS)
33 Organizing and presenting qualitative data
33.1 Tabulating data
33.2 Ten ways of organizing and presenting data analysis
33.3 Narrative and biographical approaches to data analysis
33.4 Systematic approaches to data analysis
33.5 Methodological tools for analysing qualitative data
34 Coding and content analysis 668
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Coding
34.3 Concerns about coding
34.4 What is content analysis?
34.5 How does content analysis work?
34.6 A worked example of content analysis
34.7 Reliability in content analysis
35 Discourses: conversations, narratives and autobiographies as texts
35.1 Discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis
35.2 A conversational analysis
35.3 Narrative analysis
35.4 Autobiography
35.5 Conclusion
36 Analysing visual media
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Content analysis
36.3 Discourse analysis
36.4 Grounded theory
36.5 Interpreting images
36.6 Interpreting an image: a worked example
36.7 Analysing moving images
36.8 Conclusion
37 Grounded theory
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Versions of grounded theory
37.3 Stages in generating a grounded theory
37.4 The tools of grounded theory
37.5 The strength of the grounded theory
37.6 Evaluating grounded theory
37.7 Preparing to work in grounded theory
37.8 Some concerns about grounded theory
38 Approaches to quantitative data analysis
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Scales of data
38.3 Parametric and non-parametric data
38.4 Descriptive and inferential statistics
38.5 Kinds of variables
38.6 Hypotheses
38.7 One-tailed and two-tailed tests
38.8 Confidence intervals
38.9 Distributions
38.10 Conclusion
39 Statistical significance, effect size and statistical power
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Statistical significance
39.3 Concerns about statistical significance
39.4 Hypothesis testing and null hypothesis significance testing
39.5 Effect size
39.6 Statistical power
39.7 Conclusion
40 Descriptive statistics
40.1 Missing data
40.2 Frequencies, percentages and crosstabulations
40.3 Measures of central tendency and dispersal
40.4 Taking stock
40.5 Correlations and measures of association
40.6 Partial correlations
40.7 Reliability
41 Inferential statistics: difference tests
41.1 Measures of difference between groups
41.2 The t-test
41.3 Analysis of Variance
41.4 The chi-square test
41.5 Degrees of freedom
41.6 The Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon tests
41.7 The Kruskal-Wallis and Friedman tests
41.8 Conclusion
42 Inferential statistics: regression analysis and standardization
42.1 Regression analysis
42.2 Simple linear regression
42.3 Multiple regression
42.4 Standardized scores
42.5 Conclusion
43 Factor analysis, cluster analysis and structural equation modelling
43.1 Conducting factor analysis
43.2 What to look for in factor analysis output
43.3 Cluster analysis
43.4 A note on structural equation modelling
43.5 A note on multilevel modelling
44 Choosing a statistical test
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Sampling issues
44.3 The types of data used
44.4 Choosing the right statistic
44.5 Assumptions of tests
45 Beyond mixed methods: using Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to integrate cross-case and within-case analyses
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Starting from a ‘quantitative’ stance
45.3 Starting from a ‘qualitative’ stance
45.4 Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)
45.5 QCA: sufficiency
45.6 Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
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