Research Methods in Education 8th Edition by Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion, Keith Morrison ISBN 1315456515 9781315456515

PART 1 The context of educational research

1 The nature of enquiry: setting the field

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The search for understanding

1.3 Conceptions of social reality

1.4 Paradigms

1.5 Positivism

1.6 The assumptions and nature of science

1.7 The tools of science

1.8 The scientific method

1.9 Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method

1.10 Post-positivism

1.11 Alternatives to positivistic and post-positivist social science: naturalistic and interpretive approaches

1.12 A question of terminology: the normative and interpretive paradigms

1.13 Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism and constructionism

1.14 Criticisms of the naturalistic and interpretive approaches

1.15 Postmodernism and post-structuralist perspectives

1.16 Subjectivity and objectivity in educational research

1.17 The paradigm of complexity theory

1.18 Conclusion

2 Mixed methods research

2.1 Introduction

2.2 What is mixed methods research?

2.3 Why use mixed methods research?

2.4 The foundations of mixed methods research

2.5 Working with mixed methods approaches

2.6 Stages in mixed methods research

2.7 Conclusion

3 Critical educational research

3.1 Critical theory and critical educational research

3.2 Criticisms of approaches from critical theory

3.3 Participatory research and critical theory

3.4 Feminist research

3.5 A note on post-colonial theory and queer theory

3.6 Value-neutrality in educational research

3.7 A summary of three major paradigms

4 Theory in educational research

4.1 What is theory?

4.2 Why have theory?

4.3 What makes a theory interesting?

4.4 Types of theory

4.5 Where does theory come from?

4.6 Questions about theory for researchers

4.7 Conclusion

5 Evaluation and research

5.1 Similarities and differences between research and evaluation

5.2 Evaluation research and policy making

5.3 Research, evaluation, politics and policy making

6 The search for causation

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Causes and conditions

6.3 Causal inference and probabilistic causation

6.4 Causation, explanation, prediction and correlation

6.5 Causal over-determination

6.6 The timing and scope of the cause and the effect

6.7 Causal direction, directness and indirectness

6.8 Establishing causation

6.9 The role of action narratives in causation

6.10 Researching causes and effects

6.11 Researching the effects of causes

6.12 Researching the causes of effects

6.13 Conclusion

PART 2 Research design

7 The ethics of educational and social research

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Ethical principles and the nature of ethics in educational research

7.3 Sponsored research

7.4 Regulatory contexts of ethics

7.5 Choice of research topic and research design

7.6 Informed consent

7.7 Non-maleficence, beneficence and human dignity

7.8 Privacy

7.9 Anonymity

7.10 Confidentiality

7.11 Against privacy, confidentiality and anonymity

7.12 Deception

7.13 Gaining access and acceptance into the research setting

7.14 Power and position

7.15 Reciprocity

7.16 Ethics in data analysis

7.17 Ethics in reporting and dissemination

7.18 Responsibilities to sponsors, authors and the research community

7.19 Conclusion

8 Ethics in Internet research

8.1 What is Internet research?

8.2 What are key ethical issues in Internet research?

8.3 Informed consent

8.4 Public and private matters

8.5 Confidentiality and anonymity

8.6 Ethical codes for Internet research

8.7 Conclusion

9 Choosing a research project

9.1 Introduction

9.2 What gives rise to the research project?

9.3 The importance of the research

9.4 The purposes of the research

9.5 Ensuring that the research can be conducted

9.6 Considering research questions

9.7 The literature search and review

9.8 Summary of key issues in choosing a research topic or project

10 Research questions

10.1 Why have research questions?

10.2 Where do research questions come from?

10.3 What kinds of research question are there?

10.4 Devising your research question(s)

10.5 Making your research question answerable

10.6 How many research questions should I have?

10.7 A final thought

11 Research design and planning

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Approaching research planning

11.3 Research design and methodology

11.4 From design to operational planning

11.5 A framework for planning research

11.6 Conducting and reporting a literature review

11.7 Searching for literature on the Internet

11.8 How to operationalize research questions

11.9 Distinguishing methods from methodologies

11.10 Data analysis

11.11 Presenting and reporting the results

11.12 A planning matrix for research

11.13 Managing the planning of research

11.14 A worked example

11.15 Ensuring quality in the planning of research

12 Sampling

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The sample size

12.3 Sampling error

12.4 Statistical power and sample size

12.5 The representativeness of the sample

12.6 The access to the sample

12.7 The sampling strategy to be used

12.8 Probability samples

12.9 Non-probability samples

12.10 Sampling in qualitative research

12.11 Sampling in mixed methods research

12.12 Planning a sampling strategy

12.13 Conclusion

13 Sensitive educational research

13.1 Introduction

13.2 What is sensitive research?

13.3 Sampling and access

13.4 Ethical issues in sensitive research

13.5 Effects of sensitive research on the researcher

13.6 Researching powerful people

13.7 Researching powerless and vulnerable people

13.8 Asking questions

13.9 Conclusion

14 Validity and reliability

14.1 Defining validity

14.2 Validity in quantitative research

14.3 Validity in qualitative research

14.4 Validity in mixed methods research

14.5 Types of validity

14.6 Triangulation

14.7 Ensuring validity

14.8 Reliability

14.9 Reliability in quantitative research

14.10 Reliability in qualitative research

14.11 Validity and reliability in interviews

14.12 Validity and reliability in experiments

14.13 Validity and reliability in questionnaires

14.14 Validity and reliability in observations

14.15 Validity and reliability in tests

14.16 Validity and reliability in life histories

14.17 Validity and reliability in case studies

PART 3 Methodologies for educational research

15 Qualitative, naturalistic and ethnographic research

15.1 Foundations of qualitative, naturalistic and ethnographic inquiry

15.2 Naturalistic research

15.3 Ethnographic research

15.4 Critical ethnography

15.5 Autoethnography

15.6 Virtual ethnography

15.7 Phenomenological research

15.8 Planning qualitative, naturalistic and ethnographic research

15.9 Reflexivity

15.10 Doing qualitative research

15.11 Some challenges in qualitative, ethnographic and naturalistic approaches

16 Historical and documentary research

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Some preliminary considerations: theory and method

16.3 The requirements and process of documentary analysis

16.4 Some problems surrounding the use of documentary sources

16.5 The voice of the past: whose account counts?

16.6 A worked example: a biographical approach to the history of education

16.7 Conclusion

17 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sectional and trend studies

17.1 Introduction

17.2 What is a survey?

17.3 Advantages of surveys

17.4 Some preliminary considerations

17.5 Planning and designing a survey

17.6 Survey questions

17.7 Low response, non-response and missing data

17.8 Survey sampling

17.9 Longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys

17.10 Strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal, cohort and cross-sectional studies

17.11 Postal, interview and telephone surveys

17.12 Comparing methods of data collection in surveys

18 Internet surveys

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Advantages of Internet surveys

18.3 Disadvantages of Internet surveys

18.4 Constructing Internet-based surveys

18.5 Ethical issues in Internet-based surveys

18.6 Sampling in Internet-based surveys

18.7 Improving response rates in Internet surveys

18.8 Technological advances

19 Case studies

19.1 What is a case study?

19.2 Types of case study

19.3 Advantages and disadvantages of case study

19.4 Generalization in case study

19.5 Reliability and validity in case studies

19.6 Planning a case study

19.7 Case study design and methodology

19.8 Sampling in case studies

19.9 Data in case studies

19.10 Writing up a case study

19.11 What makes a good case study researcher?

19.12 Conclusion

20 Experiments

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Randomized controlled trials

20.3 Designs in educational experiments

20.4 True experimental designs

20.5 Quasi-experimental designs

20.6 Single-case ABAB design

20.7 Procedures in conducting experimental research

20.8 Threats to internal and external validity in experiments

20.9 The timing of the pre-test and the post-test

20.10 The design experiment

20.11 Internet-based experiments

20.12 Ex post facto research

20.13 Conclusion

21 Meta-analysis, systematic reviews and research syntheses

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Meta-analysis

21.3 Systematic reviews

21.4 Methodologically inclusive research syntheses

21.5 Conclusion

22 Action research

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Defining action research

22.3 Principles and characteristics of action research

22.4 Participatory action research

22.5 Action research as critical praxis

22.6 Action research and complexity theory

22.7 Procedures for action research

22.8 Reporting action research

22.9 Reflexivity in action research

22.10 Ethical issues in action research

22.11 Some practical and theoretical matters

22.12 Conclusion

23 Virtual worlds, social network software and netography in educational research

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Key features of virtual worlds

23.3 Social network software

23.4 Using virtual worlds and social media in educational research

23.5 Netography, virtual worlds and social media network software

23.6 Opportunities for research with virtual worlds, social network software and netography

23.7 Ethics

23.8 Guidelines for practice

23.9 Data

23.10 Conclusion

PART 4 Methods of data collection

24 Questionnaires

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Ethical issues

24.3 Planning the questionnaire

24.4 Types of questionnaire items

24.5 Asking sensitive questions

24.6 Avoiding pitfalls in question writing

24.7 Sequencing questions

24.8 Questionnaires containing few verbal items

24.9 The layout of the questionnaire

24.10 Covering letters/sheets and follow-up letters

24.11 Piloting the questionnaire

24.12 Practical considerations in questionnaire design

24.13 Administering questionnaires

24.14 Processing questionnaire data

25 Interviews

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Conceptions of the interview

25.3 Purposes of the interview

25.4 Types of interview

25.5 Planning and conducting interviews

25.6 Group interviewing

25.7 Interviewing children

25.8 Interviewing minority and marginalized people

25.9 Focus groups

25.10 Non-directive, focused, problem-centred and in-depth interviews

25.11 Telephone interviewing

25.12 Online interviewing

25.13 Ethical issues in interviewing

26 Observation

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Structured observation

26.3 The need to practise structured observation

26.4 Analysing data from structured observations

26.5 Critical incidents

26.6 Naturalistic and participant observation

26.7 Data analysis for unstructured observations and videos

26.8 Natural and artificial settings for observation

26.9 Video observations

26.10 Timing and causality with observational data

26.11 Ethical considerations in observations

26.12 Reliability and validity in observations

26.13 Conclusion

27 Tests

27.1 Introduction

27.2 What are we testing?

27.3 Parametric and non-parametric tests

27.4 Diagnostic tests

27.5 Norm-referenced, criterion-referenced and domain-referenced tests

27.6 Commercially produced tests and researcher-produced tests

27.7 Constructing and validating a test

27.8 Software for preparation of a test

27.9 Devising a pre-test and post-test

27.10 Ethical issues in testing

27.11 Computerized adaptive testing

28 Using secondary data in educational research

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Advantages of using secondary data

28.3 Challenges in using secondary data

28.4 Ethical issues in using secondary data

28.5 Examples of secondary data analysis

28.6 Working with secondary data

28.7 Conclusion

29 Personal constructs

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Strengths of repertory grid technique

29.3 Working with personal constructs

29.4 Grid analysis

29.5 Some examples of the use of the repertory grid in educational research

29.6 Competing demands in the use of the repertory grid technique in research

29.7 Resources

30 Role-play and research

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Role-play pedagogy

30.3 What is role-play?

30.4 Why use role-play in research?

30.5 Issues to be aware of when using role-play

30.6 Role-play as a research method

30.7 Role-play as a research method: special features

30.8 A note of caution

30.9 How does role-play work?

30.10 Strategies for successful role-play

30.11 Examples of research using role-play

30.12 A note on simulations

31 Visual media in educational research

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Who provides the images?

31.3 Photo-elicitation

31.4 Video and moving images

31.5 Artefacts

31.6 Ethical practices in visual research

PART 5 Data analysis and reporting

32 Approaches to qualitative data analysis

32.1 Elements of qualitative data analysis

32.2 Data analysis, thick description and reflexivity

32.3 Ethics in qualitative data analysis

32.4 Computer assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS)

33 Organizing and presenting qualitative data

33.1 Tabulating data

33.2 Ten ways of organizing and presenting data analysis

33.3 Narrative and biographical approaches to data analysis

33.4 Systematic approaches to data analysis

33.5 Methodological tools for analysing qualitative data

34 Coding and content analysis 668

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Coding

34.3 Concerns about coding

34.4 What is content analysis?

34.5 How does content analysis work?

34.6 A worked example of content analysis

34.7 Reliability in content analysis

35 Discourses: conversations, narratives and autobiographies as texts

35.1 Discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis

35.2 A conversational analysis

35.3 Narrative analysis

35.4 Autobiography

35.5 Conclusion

36 Analysing visual media

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Content analysis

36.3 Discourse analysis

36.4 Grounded theory

36.5 Interpreting images

36.6 Interpreting an image: a worked example

36.7 Analysing moving images

36.8 Conclusion

37 Grounded theory

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Versions of grounded theory

37.3 Stages in generating a grounded theory

37.4 The tools of grounded theory

37.5 The strength of the grounded theory

37.6 Evaluating grounded theory

37.7 Preparing to work in grounded theory

37.8 Some concerns about grounded theory

38 Approaches to quantitative data analysis

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Scales of data

38.3 Parametric and non-parametric data

38.4 Descriptive and inferential statistics

38.5 Kinds of variables

38.6 Hypotheses

38.7 One-tailed and two-tailed tests

38.8 Confidence intervals

38.9 Distributions

38.10 Conclusion

39 Statistical significance, effect size and statistical power

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Statistical significance

39.3 Concerns about statistical significance

39.4 Hypothesis testing and null hypothesis significance testing

39.5 Effect size

39.6 Statistical power

39.7 Conclusion

40 Descriptive statistics

40.1 Missing data

40.2 Frequencies, percentages and crosstabulations

40.3 Measures of central tendency and dispersal

40.4 Taking stock

40.5 Correlations and measures of association

40.6 Partial correlations

40.7 Reliability

41 Inferential statistics: difference tests

41.1 Measures of difference between groups

41.2 The t-test

41.3 Analysis of Variance

41.4 The chi-square test

41.5 Degrees of freedom

41.6 The Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon tests

41.7 The Kruskal-Wallis and Friedman tests

41.8 Conclusion

42 Inferential statistics: regression analysis and standardization

42.1 Regression analysis

42.2 Simple linear regression

42.3 Multiple regression

42.4 Standardized scores

42.5 Conclusion

43 Factor analysis, cluster analysis and structural equation modelling

43.1 Conducting factor analysis

43.2 What to look for in factor analysis output

43.3 Cluster analysis

43.4 A note on structural equation modelling

43.5 A note on multilevel modelling

44 Choosing a statistical test

44.1 Introduction

44.2 Sampling issues

44.3 The types of data used

44.4 Choosing the right statistic

44.5 Assumptions of tests

45 Beyond mixed methods: using Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to integrate cross-case and within-case analyses

45.1 Introduction

45.2 Starting from a ‘quantitative’ stance

45.3 Starting from a ‘qualitative’ stance

45.4 Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)

45.5 QCA: sufficiency

45.6 Conclusion

Bibliography

Index