Principles of Neural Science 5th Edition by Kandel, Eric 9780071390118 0071390111

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• ISBN 13:9780071390118

• Author:Kandel, Eric 

 Principles of Neural Science

Principles of Neural Science 5th Table of contents:

Part I: Overall Perspective
1 The Brain and Behavior
Two Opposing Views Have Been Advanced on the Relationship Between Brain and Behavior
The Brain Has Distinct Functional Regions
The First Strong Evidence for Localization of Cognitive Abilities Came from Studies of Language Diso
Affective States Are Also Mediated by Local, Specialized Systems in the Brain
Mental Processes Are the End Product of the Interactions Between Elementary Processing Units in the
Selected Readings
References
2 Nerve Cells, Neural Circuitry, and Behavior
The Nervous System Has Two Classes of Cells
Each Nerve Cell Is Part of a Circuit That Has One or More Specific Behavioral Functions
Signaling Is Organized in the Same Way in All Nerve Cells
Nerve Cells Differ Most at the Molecular Level
Neural Network Models Simulate the Brain’s Parallel Processing of Information
Neural Connections Can Be Modified by Experience
Selected Readings
References
3 Genes and Behavior
Genes, Genetic Analysis, and Heritability in Behavior
The Nature of the Gene
Genes Are Arranged on Chromosomes
The Relationship Between Genotype and Phenotype
Genes Are Conserved Through Evolution
The Role of Genes in Behavior Can Be Studied in Animal Models
Genetic Studies of Human Behavior and Its Abnormalities
Psychiatric Disorders and the Challenge of Understanding Multigenic Traits
An Overall View
Glossary
Selected Readings
References
Part II: Cell and Molecular Biology of the Neuron
4 The Cells of the Nervous System
Protein Particles and Organelles Are Actively Transported Along the Axon and Dendrites
Proteins Are Made in Neurons as in Other Secretory Cells
Surface Membrane and Extracellular Substances Are Recycled in the Cell
Glial Cells Play Diverse Roles in Neural Function
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
5 Ion Channels
Rapid Signaling in the Nervous System Depends on Ion Channels
Ion Channels Are Proteins That Span the Cell Membrane
Currents Through Single Ion Channels Can Be Recorded
Ion Channels in All Cells Share Several Characteristics
The Structure of Ion Channels Is Inferred from Biophysical, Biochemical, and Molecular Biological St
Ion Channels Can Be Grouped into Gene Families
The Closed and Open Structures of Potassium Channels Have Been Resolved by X-Ray Crystallography
The Structural Basis of Chloride Selectivity Reveals a Close Relation Between Ion Channels and Ion T
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
6 Membrane Potential and the Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron
The Resting Membrane Potential Results from the Separation of Charge Across the Cell Membrane
The Resting Membrane Potential Is Determined by Nongated and Gated Ion Channels
The Balance of Ion Fluxes That Maintains the Resting Membrane Potential Is Abolished During the Acti
The Contributions of Different Ions to the Resting Membrane Potential Can Be Quantified by the Goldm
The Functional Properties of the Neuron Can Be Represented as an Electrical Equivalent Circuit
The Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron Affect Electrical Signaling
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
7 Propagated Signaling: The Action Potential
The Action Potential Is Generated by the Flow of Ions Through Voltage-Gated Channels
Variations in the Properties of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Expand the Signaling Capabilities of Neur
The Mechanisms of Voltage-Gating and Ion Permeation Have Been Inferred from Electrophysiological Mea
Voltage-Gated Potassium, Sodium, and Calcium Channels Stem from a Common Ancestor and Have Similar S
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
Part III: Synaptic Transmission
8 Overview of Synaptic Transmission
Synapses Are Either Electrical or Chemical
Electrical Synapses Provide Instantaneous Signal Transmission
Chemical Synapses Can Amplify Signals
Selected Readings
References
9 Signaling at the Nerve-Muscle Synapse: Directly Gated Transmission
The Neuromuscular Junction Is a Well-Studied Example of Directly Gated Synaptic Transmission
The Motor Neuron Excites the Muscle by Opening Ligand-Gated Ion Channels at the End-Plate
The Current Through Single Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels Can Be Measured Using the Patch Clamp
The Molecular Properties of the Acetylcholine Receptor-Channel Are Known
An Overall View
Postscript: The End-Plate Current Can Be Calculated from an Equivalent Circuit
Selected Readings
References
10 Synaptic Integration in the Central Nervous System
Central Neurons Receive Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs
Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses Have Distinctive Ultrastructures
Excitatory Synaptic Transmission Is Mediated by Ionotropic Glutamate Receptor-Channels That Are Perm
Inhibitory Synaptic Action Is Usually Mediated by Ionotropic GABA and Glycine Receptor-Channels That
Ionotropic Glutamate, GABA, and Glycine Receptors Are Transmembrane Proteins Encoded by Two Distinct
Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Actions Are Integrated by the Cell into a Single Output
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
11 Modulation of Synaptic Transmission: Second Messengers
The Cyclic AMP Pathway Is the Best Understood Second-Messenger Signaling Cascade Initiated by G Prot
The Second-Messenger Pathways Initiated by G Protein-Coupled Receptors Share a Common Molecular Logi
Transcellular Messengers Are Important for Regulating Presynaptic Function
A Family of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Mediates Some Metabotropic Receptor Effects
The Physiological Actions of Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors Differ
Synaptic Actions Mediated by Phosphorylation Are Terminated by Phosphoprotein Phosphatases
Second Messengers Can Endow Synaptic Transmission with Long-Lasting Consequences
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
12 Transmitter Release
Transmitter Release Is Regulated by Depolarization of the Presynaptic Terminal
Release Is Triggered by Calcium Influx
Transmitter Is Released in Quantal Units
Transmitter Is Stored and Released by Synaptic Vesicles
Exocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles Relies on a Highly Conserved Protein Machinery
Modulation of Transmitter Release Underlies Synaptic Plasticity
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
13 Neurotransmitters
A Chemical Messenger Must Meet Four Criteria to Be Considered a Neurotransmitter
Only a Few Small-Molecule Substances Act as Transmitters
Small-Molecule Transmitters Are Actively Taken Up into Vesicles
Many Neuroactive Peptides Serve as Transmitters
Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Differ in Several Ways
Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Coexist and Can Be Co-released
Removal of Transmitter from the Synaptic Cleft Terminates Synaptic Transmission
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
14 Diseases of the Nerve and Motor Unit
Disorders of the Peripheral Nerve, Neuromuscular Junction, and Muscle Can Be Distinguished Clinicall
A Variety of Diseases Target Motor Neurons and Peripheral Nerves
Diseases of the Neuromuscular Junction Have Multiple Causes
Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Can Be Inherited or Acquired
An Overall View
Postscript: Diagnosis of Motor Unit Disorders Is Aided by Laboratory Criteria
Selected Readings
References
Part IV: The Neural Basis of Cognition
15 The Organization of the Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System Consists of the Spinal Cord and the Brain
The Major Functional Systems Are Similarly Organized
The Cerebral Cortex Is Concerned with Cognition
Subcortical Regions of the Brain Are Functionally Organized into Nuclei
Modulatory Systems in the Brain Influence Motivation, Emotion, and Memory
The Peripheral Nervous System Is Anatomically Distinct from the Central Nervous System
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
16 The Functional Organization of Perception and Movement
Sensory Information Processing Is Illustrated in the Somatosensory System
The Thalamus Is an Essential Link Between Sensory Receptors and the Cerebral Cortex for All Modaliti
Sensory Information Processing Culminates in the Cerebral Cortex
Voluntary Movement Is Mediated by Direct Connections Between the Cortex and Spinal Cord
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
17 From Nerve Cells to Cognition: The Internal Representations of Space and Action
The Major Goal of Cognitive Neural Science Is to Understand Neural Representations of Mental Process
The Brain Has an Orderly Representation of Personal Space
The Internal Representation of Personal Space Can Be Modified by Experience
Extrapersonal Space Is Represented in the Posterior Parietal Association Cortex
Much of Mental Processing Is Unconscious
Is Consciousness Accessible to Neurobiological Analysis?
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
18 The Organization of Cognition
Functionally Related Areas of Cortex Lie Close Together
Sensory Information Is Processed in the Cortex in Serial Pathways
Parallel Pathways in Each Sensory Modality Lead to Dorsal and Ventral Association Areas
Goal-Directed Motor Behavior Is Controlled in the Frontal Lobe
Limbic Association Cortex Is a Gateway to the Hippocampal Memory System
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
19 Cognitive Functions of the Premotor Systems
Direct Connections Between the Cerebral Cortex and Spinal Cord Play a Fundamental Role in the Organi
The Four Premotor Areas of the Primate Brain Also Have Direct Connections in the Spinal Cord
Motor Circuits Involved in Voluntary Actions Are Organized to Achieve Specific Goals
The Hand Has a Critical Role in Primate Behavior
The Joint Activity of Neurons in the Parietal and Premotor Cortex Encodes Potential Motor Acts
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
20 Functional Imaging of Cognition
Functional Imaging Reflects the Metabolic Demand of Neural Activity
Functional Imaging Is Used to Probe Cognitive Processes
Functional Imaging Has Limitations
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
Part V: Perception
21 Sensory Coding
Psychophysics Relates the Physical Properties of Stimuli to Sensations
Physical Stimuli Are Represented in the Nervous System by Means of the Sensory Code
Modality-Specific Pathways Extend to the Central Nervous System
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
22 The Somatosensory System: Receptors and Central Pathways
The Primary Sensory Neurons of the Somatosensory System Are Clustered in the Dorsal Root Ganglia
Peripheral Somatosensory Nerve Fibers Conduct Action Potentials at Different Rates
Many Specialized Receptors Are Employed by the Somatosensory System
Somatosensory Information Enters the Central Nervous System Through Cranial and Spinal Nerves
Somatosensory Information Flows from the Spinal Cord to the Thalamus Through Parallel Pathways
The Thalamus Has a Number of Specialized Somatosensory Regions
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
23 Touch
Active and Passive Touch Evoke Similar Responses in Mechanoreceptors
The Hand Has Four Types of Mechanoreceptors
Tactile Information Is Processed in the Central Touch System
Touch Information Becomes Increasingly Abstract in Successive Central Synapses
Lesions in Somatosensory Areas of the Brain Produce Specific Tactile Deficits
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
24 Pain
Noxious Insults Activate Nociceptors
Signals from Nociceptors Are Conveyed to Neurons in the Dorsal Horn of the Spinal Cord
Hyperalgesia Has Both Peripheral and Central Origins
Nociceptive Information Is Transmitted from the Spinal Cord to the Thalamus
Pain Is Controlled by Cortical Mechanisms
Opioid Peptides Contribute to Endogenous Pain Control
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
25 The Constructive Nature of Visual Processing
Visual Perception Is a Constructive Process
Visual Perception Is Mediated by the Geniculostriate Pathway
Form, Color, Motion, and Depth Are Processed in Discrete Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
The Receptive Fields of Neurons at Successive Relays in an Afferent Pathway Provide Clues to How the
The Visual Cortex Is Organized into Columns of Specialized Neurons
Intrinsic Cortical Circuits Transform Neural Information
Visual Information Is Represented by a Variety of Neural Codes
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
26 Low-Level Visual Processing: The Retina
The Photoreceptor Layer Samples the Visual Image
Phototransduction Links the Absorption of a Photon to a Change in Membrane Conductance
Ganglion Cells Transmit Neural Images to the Brain
A Network of Interneurons Shapes the Retinal Output
The Retina’s Sensitivity Adapts to Changes in Illumination
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
27 Intermediate-Level Visual Processing and Visual Primitives
Internal Models of Object Geometry Help the Brain Analyze Shapes
Depth Perception Helps Segregate Objects from Background
Local Movement Cues Define Object Trajectory and Shape
Context Determines the Perception of Visual Stimuli
Cortical Connections, Functional Architecture, and Perception Are Intimately Related
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
28 High-Level Visual Processing: Cognitive Influences
High-Level Visual Processing Is Concerned with Object Identification
The Inferior Temporal Cortex Is the Primary Center for Object Perception
Object Recognition Relies on Perceptual Constancy
Categorical Perception of Objects Simplifies Behavior
Visual Memory Is a Component of High-Level Visual Processing
Associative Recall of Visual Memories Depends on Top-Down Activation of the Cortical Neurons That Pr
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
29 Visual Processing and Action
Successive Fixations Focus Our Attention in the Visual Field
The Visual Scene Remains Stable Despite Continual Shifts in the Retinal Image
Vision Lapses During Saccades
The Parietal Cortex Provides Visual Information to the Motor System
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
30 The Inner Ear
The Ear Has Three Functional Parts
Hearing Commences with the Capture of Sound Energy by the Ear
The Hydrodynamic and Mechanical Apparatus of the Cochlea Delivers Mechanical Stimuli to the Receptor
Hair Cells Transform Mechanical Energy into Neural Signals
The Temporal Responsiveness of Hair Cells Determines Their Sensitivity
Hair Cells Use Specialized Ribbon Synapses
Auditory Information Flows Initially Through the Cochlear Nerve
Sensorineural Hearing Loss Is Common but Treatable
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
31 The Auditory Central Nervous System
Multiple Types of Information Are Present in Sounds
The Neural Representation of Sound Begins in the Cochlear Nuclei
The Superior Olivary Complex of Mammals Contains Separate Circuits for Detecting Interaural Time and
Efferent Signals from the Superior Olivary Complex Provide Feedback to the Cochlea
The Inferior Colliculus Transmits Auditory Information to the Cerebral Cortex
Hearing Is Crucial for Vocal Learning and Production in Both Humans and Songbirds
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
32 Smell and Taste: The Chemical Senses
A Large Number of Olfactory Receptor Proteins Initiate the Sense of Smell
Olfactory Information Is Transformed Along the Pathway to the Brain
Odors Elicit Characteristic Innate Behaviors
The Gustatory System Controls the Sense of Taste
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
Part VI: Movement
33 The Organization and Planning of Movement
Motor Commands Arise Through Sensorimotor Transformations
Motor Signals Are Subject to Feedforward and Feedback Control
Motor Systems Must Adapt to Development and Experience
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
34 The Motor Unit and Muscle Action
The Motor Unit Is the Elementary Unit of Motor Control
Muscle Force Depends on the Structure of Muscle
Different Movements Require Different Activation Strategies
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
35 Spinal Reflexes
Reflexes Are Adaptable to Particular Motor Tasks
Spinal Reflexes Produce Coordinated Patterns of Muscle Contraction
Local Spinal Circuits Contribute to the Coordination of Reflex Responses
Central Motor Commands and Cognitive Processes Can Alter Synaptic Transmission in Spinal Reflex Path
Proprioceptive Reflexes Play an Important Role in Regulating Both Voluntary and Automatic Movements
Damage to the Central Nervous System Produces Characteristic Alterations in Reflex Response and Musc
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
36 Locomotion
A Complex Sequence of Muscle Contractions Is Required for Stepping
The Motor Pattern for Stepping Is Organized at the Spinal Level
Sensory Input from Moving Limbs Regulates Stepping
Descending Pathways Are Necessary for Initiation and Adaptive Control of Stepping
Human Walking May Involve Spinal Pattern Generators
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
37 Voluntary Movement: The Primary Motor Cortex
Motor Functions Are Localized within the Cerebral Cortex
Many Cortical Areas Contribute to the Control of Voluntary Movements
The Primary Motor Cortex Plays an Important Role in the Generation of Motor Commands
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
38 Voluntary Movement: The Parietal and Premotor Cortex
Voluntary Movement Expresses an Intention to Act
Voluntary Movement Requires Sensory Information About the World and the Body
Reaching for an Object Requires Sensory Information About the Object’s Location in Space
Grasping an Object Requires Sensory Information About Its Physical Properties
The Supplementary Motor Complex Plays a Crucial Role in Selecting and Executing Appropriate Voluntar
The Cortical Motor System Is Involved in Planning Action
Cortical Motor Areas Contribute to Understanding the Observed Actions of Others
The Relationship between Motor Acts, the Sense of Volition, and Free Will Is Uncertain
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
39 The Control of Gaze
Six Neuronal Control Systems Keep the Eyes on Target
The Eye Is Moved by the Six Extraocular Muscles
The Motor Circuits for Saccades Lie in the Brain Stem
Saccades Are Controlled by the Cerebral Cortex Through the Superior Colliculus
Smooth Pursuit Involves the Cerebral Cortex, Cerebellum, and Pons
Some Gaze Shifts Require Coordinated Head and Eye Movements
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
40 The Vestibular System
The Vestibular Apparatus in the Inner Ear Contains Five Receptor Organs
Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Stabilize the Eyes and Body When the Head Moves
Central Connections of the Vestibular Apparatus Integrate Vestibular, Visual, and Motor Signals
Clinical Syndromes Elucidate Normal Vestibular Function
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
41 Posture
Postural Equilibrium and Orientation Are Distinct Sensorimotor Processes
Postural Equilibrium Requires Control of the Body’s Center of Mass
Postural Orientation Is Important for Optimizing Execution of Tasks, Interpreting Sensations, and An
Sensory Information from Several Modalities Must Be Integrated to Maintain Equilibrium and Orientati
Control of Posture Is Distributed in the Nervous System
An Overall View
Suggested Readings
References
42 The Cerebellum
Cerebellar Diseases Have Distinctive Symptoms and Signs
The Cerebellum Has Several Functionally Distinct Regions
The Cerebellar Microcircuit Has a Distinct and Regular Organization
The Vestibulocerebellum Regulates Balance and Eye Movements
The Spinocerebellum Regulates Body and Limb Movements
The Cerebrocerebellum Is Involved in Planning Movement
The Cerebellum Participates in Motor Learning
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
43 The Basal Ganglia
The Basal Ganglia Consist of Several Interconnected Nuclei
A Family of Cortico–Basal Ganglia–Thalamocortical Circuits Subserves Skeletomotor, Oculomotor, A
The Cortico–Basal Ganglia–Thalamocortical Motor Circuit Originates and Terminates in Cortical Ar
Other Basal Ganglia Circuits Are Involved in the Regulation of Eye Movements, Mood, Reward, and Exec
Diseases of the Basal Ganglia Are Associated with Disturbances of Movement, Executive Function, Beha
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
44 Genetic Mechanisms in Degenerative Diseases of the Nervous System
Expanded Trinucleotide Repeats Characterize Several Neurodegenerative Diseases
Parkinson Disease Is a Common Degenerative Disorder of the Elderly
Selective Neuronal Loss Occurs After Damage to Ubiquitously Expressed Genes
Animal Models Are Powerful Tools for Studying Neurodegenerative Diseases
Several Pathways Underlie the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases
Advances in Understanding the Molecular Basis of Neurodegenerative Diseases Are Opening Possibilitie
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
Part VII: The Unconscious and Conscious Processing of Neural Information
45 The Sensory, Motor, and Reflex Functions of the Brain Stem
The Cranial Nerves Are Homologous to the Spinal Nerves
Cranial Nerve Nuclei in the Brain Stem Are Organized on the Same Basic Plan As Are Sensory and Motor
Neuronal Ensembles in the Brain Stem Reticular Formation Coordinate Reflexes and Simple Behaviors Ne
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
46 The Modulatory Functions of the Brain Stem
Ascending Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Projections from the Brain Stem Maintain Arousal
Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Neurons Share Many Properties and Functions
Monoamines Regulate Many Brain Functions Other Than Arousal
An Overall View
Postscript: Evaluation of the Comatose Patient
Selected Readings
References
47 The Autonomic Motor System and the Hypothalamus
The Autonomic Motor System Mediates Homeostasis
The Autonomic System Contains Visceral Motor Neurons That Are Organized into Ganglia
Both the Pre- and Postsynaptic Neurons of the Autonomic Motor System Use Co-Transmission at Their Sy
Autonomic Behavior Is the Product of Cooperation Between All Three Autonomic Divisions
Autonomic and Endocrine Function Is Coordinated by a Central Autonomic Network Centered in the Hypot
The Hypothalamus Integrates Autonomic, Endocrine, and Behavioral Responses
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
48 Emotions and Feelings
The Modern Search for the Emotional Brain Began in the Late 19th Century
The Amygdala Emerged as a Critical Regulatory Site in Circuits of Emotions
Other Brain Areas Contribute to Emotional Processing
The Neural Correlates of Feeling Are Beginning to Be Understood
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
49 Homeostasis, Motivation, and Addictive States
Drinking Occurs Both in Response to and in Anticipation of Dehydration
Energy Stores Are Precisely Regulated
Motivational States Influence Goal-Directed Behavior
Drug Abuse and Addiction Are Goal-Directed Behaviors
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
50 Seizures and Epilepsy
Classification of Seizures and the Epilepsies Is Important for Pathogenesis and Treatment
The Electroencephalogram Represents the Collective Behavior of Cortical Neurons
Focal Seizures Originate Within a Small Group of Neurons Known as a Seizure Focus
Primary Generalized Seizures Are Driven by Thalamocortical Circuits
Locating the Seizure Focus Is Critical to the Surgical Treatment of Epilepsy
Prolonged Seizures Can Cause Brain Damage
The Factors Leading to Development of Epilepsy Are an Unfolding Mystery
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
51 Sleep and Dreaming
Sleep Consists of Alternating REM and Non-REM Periods
Sleep Obeys Circadian and Ultradian Rhythms
Sleep Changes with Age
The Characteristics of Sleep Vary Greatly Between Species
Sleep Disorders Have Behavioral, Psychological, and Neurological Causes
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
Part VIII: Development and the Emergence of Behavior
52 Patterning the Nervous System
The Neural Tube Becomes Regionalized Early in Embryogenesis
Secreted Signals Promote Neural Cell Fate
Rostrocaudal Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Signaling Gradients and Secondary Organizing Cen
Dorsoventral Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Similar Mechanisms at Different Rostrocaudal Lev
Local Signals Determine Functional Subclasses of Neurons
The Developing Forebrain Is Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
53 Differentiation and Survival of Nerve Cells
The Proliferation of Neural Progenitor Cells Involves Symmetric and Asymmetric Modes of Cell Divisio
Radial Glial Cells Serve As Neural Progenitors and Structural Scaffolds
The Generation of Neurons or Glial Cells Is Regulated by Delta-Notch Signaling and Basic Helix-Loop-
Neuronal Migration Establishes the Layered Organization of the Cerebral Cortex
Central Neurons Migrate Along Glial Cells and Axons to Reach Their Final Settling Position
The Neurotransmitter Phenotype of a Neuron Is Plastic
The Survival of a Neuron Is Regulated by Neurotrophic Signals from the Neuron’s Target
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
54 The Growth and Guidance of Axons
Differences in the Molecular Properties of Axons and Dendrites Emerge Early in Development
The Growth Cone Is a Sensory Transducer and a Motor Structure
Molecular Cues Guide Axons to Their Targets
The Growth of Retinal Ganglion Axons Is Oriented in a Series of Discrete Steps
Axons from Some Spinal Neurons Cross the Midline
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
55 Formation and Elimination of Synapses
Recognition of Synaptic Targets Is Specific
Principles of Synaptic Differentiation Are Revealed at the Neuromuscular Junction
Central Synapses Develop in Ways Similar to Neuromuscular Junctions
Some Synapses Are Eliminated After Birth
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
56 Experience and the Refinement of Synaptic Connections
Development of Human Mental Function Is Influenced by Early Experience
Development of Binocular Circuits in the Visual Cortex Depends on Postnatal Activity
Reorganization of Visual Circuits During a Critical Period Involves Alterations in Synaptic Connecti
Segregation of Retinal Inputs in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Is Driven by Spontaneous Neural Acti
Activity-Dependent Refinement of Connections Is a General Feature of Circuits in the Central Nervous
Critical Periods Can Be Reopened in Adulthood
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
57 Repairing the Damaged Brain
Damage to Axons Affects Neurons and Neighboring Cells
Central Axons Regenerate Poorly After Injury
Therapeutic Interventions May Promote Regeneration of Injured Central Neurons
Neurons in the Injured Brain Die but New Ones Can Be Born
Therapeutic Interventions May Retain or Replace Injured Central Neurons
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
58 Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System
Genes and Hormones Determine Physical Differences Between Males and Females
Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System Generates Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors
Environmental Cues Control Some Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors
Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Brain May Correlate with Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
59 The Aging Brain
The Structure and Function of the Brain Change with Age
Cognitive Decline Is Dramatic in a Small Percentage of the Elderly
Alzheimer Disease Is the Most Common Senile Dementia
The Brain in Alzheimer Disease Is Altered by Atrophy, Amyloid Plaques, and Neurofibrillary Tangles
Alzheimer Disease Can Be Diagnosed Well but Available Treatments Are Poor
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
Part IX: Language, Thought, Affect, and Learning
60 Language
Language Has Many Functional Levels: Phonemes, Morphemes, Words, and Sentences
Language Acquisition in Children Follows a Universal Pattern
Several Cortical Regions Are Involved in Language Processing
Brain Injuries Responsible for the Aphasias Provide Important Insights into Language Processing
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
61 Disorders of Conscious and Unconscious Mental Processes
Conscious and Unconscious Cognitive Processes Have Distinctive Neural Correlates
Differences Between Conscious Processes in Perception Can Be Seen in Exaggerated Form after Brain Da
The Control of Action Is Largely Unconscious
The Conscious Recall of Memory Is a Creative Process
Behavioral Observation Needs to Be Supplemented with Subjective Reports
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
62 Disorders of Thought and Volition: Schizophrenia
Diagnosis of Schizophrenia Is Based on Standardized Clinical Criteria
Both Genetic and Nongenetic Risk Factors Contribute to Schizophrenia
Neuroanatomic Abnormalities May Be a Causative Factor in Schizophrenia
Antipsychotic Drugs Act on Dopaminergic Systems in the Brain
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
63 Disorders of Mood and Anxiety
The Most Common Disorders of Mood Are Unipolar Depression and Bipolar Disorder
Both Genetic and Nongenetic Risk Factors Play an Important Role in Mood Disorders
Specific Brain Regions and Circuits Are Involved in Mood Disorders
Depression and Stress Are Interrelated
Major Depression Can Be Treated Effectively
Anxiety Disorders Stem from Abnormal Regulation of Fear
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
64 Autism and Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders Affecting Cognition
Autism Has Characteristic Behavioral Features
There Is a Strong Genetic Component in Autism
Autism Has Characteristic Neurological Abnormalities
There Are Distinctive Cognitive Abnormalities in Autism
Some Neurodevelopmental Disorders Have a Known Genetic Basis
An Overall View
Selected Readings
References
65 Learning and Memory

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