Test Bank for Research Methods Design and Analysis 12th Edition by Larry Christensen,Johnson 9780205961252 0205961258

Part I Introduction

Chapter 1 Understanding Scientific Research

Introduction

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Intuition

Authority

Rationalism

Empiricism

Science

Induction and Deduction

Hypothesis Testing

Naturalism

Kuhn and Paradigms

Feyerabend’s Anarchistic Theory

What Exactly Is Science?

Basic Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research

Uniformity or Regularity in Nature

Reality in Nature

Discoverability

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Control

Operationalism

Replication

The Role of Theory in Scientific Research

The Role of the Scientist in Psychological Research

Curiosity

Patience

Objectivity

Change

Objectives of Psychological Research

Description

Explanation

Prediction

Control or Influence

Pseudoscience

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 2 Research Approaches and Data Collection Methods

Introduction

Variables in Quantitative Research

Experimental Research

Causation

Cause

Effect

Required Conditions for Making the Claim of Causation

The Psychological Experiment

1. Objective Observation

2. Of Phenomena That Are Made

3. In a Strictly Controlled Situation in Which One or More

Example of an Experiment and Its Logic

Advantages of the Experimental Approach

1. Causal Inference

2. Ability to Manipulate Variables

3. Control

Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach

1. Does Not Test Effects of Nonmanipulated Variables

2. Artificiality

3. Inadequate Method of Scientific Inquiry

Experimental Research Settings

Field Experiments

Laboratory Experiments

Internet Experiments

Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Correlational Study

Natural Manipulation Research

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies

Qualitative Research

Major Methods of Data Collection

Tests

Questionnaires

Interviews

Focus Groups

Observation

Existing or Secondary Data

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Part II Planning the Research Study

Chapter 3 From Research Ideas to Hypothesis Formulation

Introduction

Sources of Research Ideas

Everyday Life

Practical Issues

Past Research

Theory

Bias in Research Ideas

Ideas Not Capable of Scientific Investigation

Review of the Literature

Getting Started

Defining Objectives

Doing the Search

Books

Psychological Journals

Computerized or Electronic Databases

Internet Resources

Obtaining Resources

Additional Information Sources

Feasibility of the Study

Formulating the Research Problem

Defining the Research Problem

Specificity of the Research Question

Formulating Hypotheses

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 4 Ethics in Scientific Research

Introduction

Research Ethics: What Are They?

Relationship Between Society and Science

Professional Issues

Treatment of Research Participants

Ethical Dilemmas

Ethical Guidelines

Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

Fidelity and Responsibility

Integrity

Justice

Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity

APA Ethical Standards for Research

Ethical Issues to Consider When Conducting Research

Institutional Approval

Informed Consent

Dispensing With Informed Consent

Informed Consent and Minors

Passive Versus Active Consent

Deception

Debriefing

Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation

Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

Informed Consent and Internet Research

Privacy and Internet Research

Debriefing and Internet Research

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

Authorship

Writing the Research Report

Ethics of Animal (Nonhuman) Research

Safeguards in the Use of Animals

Animal Research Guidelines

I. Justification of the Research

II. Personnel

III. Care and Housing of Animals

IV. Acquisition of Animals

V. Experimental Procedures

VI. Field Research

VII. Educational Use of Animals

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Part II Foundations of Research

Chapter 5 Measurement Techniques and Sampling Methods

Introduction

Defining Measurement

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

Psychometric Properties of Good Measurement

Overview of Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Test–Retest Reliability

Equivalent-Forms Reliability

Internal Consistency Reliability

Interrater Reliability

Validity

Validity Evidence Based on Content

Validity Evidence Based on Internal

Validity Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables

Using Reliability and Validity Information

Sources of Information About Tests

Sampling Methods

Terminology Used in Sampling

Random Sampling Techniques

Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling

Cluster Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Nonrandom Sampling Techniques

Random Selection and Random Assignment

Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 6 Ensuring Research Validity

Introduction

Overview of Four Major Types of Validity

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Construct Validity

Threats to Construct Validity

Participant Reactivity to the Experimental Situation

Experimenter Effects

Internal Validity

Threats to Internal Validity

History

Maturation

Instrumentation

Testing

Regression Artifact

Attrition

Selection

Additive and Interactive Effects

External Validity

Population Validity

Ecological Validity

Temporal Validity

Treatment Variation Validity

Outcome Validity

Relationship between Internal and External Validity

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Part IV Experimental Methods

Chapter 7 Control Techniques in Experimental Research

Introduction

Control Techniques Carried Out at the Beginning

Matching

Matching by Holding Variables Constant

Matching by Building the Extraneous

Matching by Yoked Control

Matching by Equating Participants

Control Techniques Carried Out During

Counterbalancing

Randomized Counterbalancing

Intrasubject Counterbalancing

Complete Counterbalancing

Incomplete Counterbalancing

Control of Participant Effects

Double-Blind Placebo Method

Deception

Control of Participant Interpretation

Control of Experimenter Effects

Control of Recording Errors

Control of Experimenter Attribute Errors

Control of Experimenter Expectancy Error

The Blind Technique

The Partial Blind Technique

Automation

Likelihood of Achieving Control

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 8 Creating the Appropriate Research Design

Introduction

Weak Experimental Research Designs

One-Group Posttest-Only Design

One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design

Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Groups

Strong Experimental Research Designs

Between-Participants Designs

Posttest-Only Control-Group Design

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Posttest-Only Control-Group Design

Within-Participants Designs

Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Participants Designs

Mixed Designs (i.e., Combination of Between and Within)

Pretest–Posttest Control-Group Design

Advantages and Disadvantages of Including a Pretest

Factorial Designs

Factorial Designs Based on within-subjects independent variables

Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of Factorial Designs

How To Choose or Construct the Appropriate Experimental Design

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 9 Procedure for Conducting an Experiment

Introduction

Institutional Approval

Research Participants

Obtaining Animals (Rats)

Obtaining Human Participants

Sample Size

Power

Apparatus and/or Instruments

Procedure

Scheduling of Research Participants

Consent to Participate

Instructions

Data Collection

Debriefing, or Postexperimental Interview

Debriefing Functions

How to Debrief

Pilot Study

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Site

Practice Test

Challenge Exercise

Chapter 10 Creating a Quasi-Experimental Design

Introduction

Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

Outcomes with Rival Hypotheses

Outcome I: Increasing Control and Experimental Groups

Outcome II:Experimental-Group-Higher-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect

Outcome III: Experimental-Group-Lower-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect

Outcome IV: Crossover Effect

Ruling out Threats to the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

Causal Inference from the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

Time-Series Design

Interrupted Time-Series Design

Regression Discontinuity Design

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 11 Creating a Single-Case Design

Introduction

History of Single-Case Designs

Single-Case Designs

ABA and ABAB Designs

Interaction Design

Multiple-Baseline Design

Changing-Criterion Design

Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs

Baseline

Changing One Variable at a Time

Length of Phases

Criteria for Evaluating Change

Experimental Criterion

Therapeutic Criterion

Rival Hypotheses

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Part V Survey, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Research

Chapter 12 The Survey as Non-Experimental Research

Introduction

When Should One Conduct Survey Research?

Steps in Survey Research

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Designs

Selecting a Survey Data Collection Method

Constructing and Refining a Survey Instrument

Principle 1. Write Items to Match the Research Objectives

Principle 2. Write Items That Are Appropriate for the Respondents to be Surveyed

Principle 3. Write Short, Simple Questions

Principle 4. Avoid Loaded or Leading Questions

Principle 5. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions

Principle 6. Avoid Double Negatives

Principle 7. Determine whether Closed-Ended and/or Open-Ended Questions Are Needed

Principle 8. Construct Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Response Categories for Closed-Ended Questi

Principle 9. Consider the Different Types of Closed-Ended Response Categories Rating Scales

Binary Forced Choice

Rankings

Checklists

Principle 10. Use Multiple Items to Measure Complex or Abstract Constructs

Semantic Differential

Likert Scaling

Principle 11. Make Sure the Questionnaire Is Easy to Use From the Beginning to the End

Ordering of Questions

Contingency Questions

Questionnaire Length

Response Bias

Principle 12. Pilot Test the Questionnaire Until It Is Perfected

Selecting Your Survey Sample From the Population

Preparing and Analyzing Your Survey Data

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 13 Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research

Introduction

Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Research Validity in Qualitative Research

Descriptive Validity

Interpretive Validity

Theoretical Validity

Internal Validity

External Validity

Four Major Qualitative Research Methods

Phenomenology

Phenomenological Data Collection and Data Analysis

Phenomenological Report Writing

Ethnography

Ethnographic Data Collection Methods

Entry, Group Acceptance, and Fieldwork

Data Analysis and Report Writing

Case Study Research

Data Collection in Case Study Research

Case Study Designs

Case Study Data Analysis and Report Writing

Grounded Theory

Data Collection in Grounded Theory Research

Grounded Theory Data Analysis and Report Writing

Mixed Methods Research

Research Validity In Mixed Methods Research

Mixed Methods Designs

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Part V I Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Chapter 14 Summarizing Research Data-Descriptive Statistics

Introduction

Descriptive Statistics

Frequency Distributions

Graphic Representations of Data

Bar Graphs

Histograms

Line Graphs

Scatterplots

Measures of Central Tendency

Mode

Median

Mean

Measures of Variability

Range

Variance and Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation and the Normal Curve

Z-scores

Examining Relationships Among Variables

Unstandardized and Standardized Difference Between Group Means

Correlation Coefficient

Partial Correlation Coefficient

Regression Analysis

Contingency Tables

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Chapter 15 Using Inferential Statistics

Introduction

Sampling Distributions

Estimation

Hypothesis Testing

Directional Alternative Hypotheses

Review of the Logic of Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis-Testing Errors

Hypothesis Testing in Practice

The t Test for Correlation Coefficients

One-Way Analysis of Variance

Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance

Analysis of Covariance

Two-Way Analysis of Variance

One-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance

The t Test for Regression Coefficients

Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables

Other Significance Tests

Hypothesis Testing and Research Design

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

Part V II Writing the Research Report

Chapter 16 Preparing and Publishing the Research Report

Introduction

The APA Format

Preparation of the Research Report

Writing Style

Language

Specificity

Labels

Participation

Specific Issues

Editorial Style

Italics

Abbreviations

Headings

Quotations

Numbers

Physical Measurements

Presentation of Statistical Results

Tables

Figures

Figure Legends and Caption

Figure Preparation

Reference Citations

Reference List

Preparation of the Manuscript for Submission

Ordering of Manuscript Pages

Submission of the Research Report for Publication

Acceptance of the Manuscript

Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences

Oral Presentation

Poster Presentation

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises