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ISBN 10:  0133463583
ISBN 13: 9780133463583
Author: Margaret Schenkman, James Bowman, Robyn Gisbert, Russell BButler

Clinical Neuroscience for Rehabilitation

This is the eBook of the printed book and may not include any media, website access codes, or print supplements that may come packaged with the bound book. TEXTBOOK OF FUNCTIONAL AND CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE is designed to help students understand the nervous system structures and functions that allow for complex neurophysiological processing in support of human functions and behavior. Students are guided through learning the vocabulary of contemporary neuroscience, understanding the nervous system’s structural organization and communications mechanisms, and learning how structures are linked anatomically and functionally to mediate specific behaviors. To facilitate learning, this text builds incrementally on basic information to introduce increasingly detailed and complex structures, functions, and terminology. As students proceed, they develop working knowledge for predicting neurological problems associated with specific diseases or injury, and analyzing appropriate interventions.

Clinical Neuroscience for Rehabilitation 1st Table of contents:

Part I Fundamentals: The Relationships and Development of Structures and the Basis of Their Communication

  1. Basic Design and Development of the Nervous System

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Basic Design of The Adult Nervous System
Cells of the Nervous System
Divisions of the Nervous System
Central and Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
Organizing Principles
Regions
Directions and Planes
Ventricles, Gray Matter, and White Matter
Ventricles
Gray Matter Names
White Matter Names
Development
Morphogenesis
Gastrulation and Neurulation
Vesiculation
Brain Flexures
Ventricular System
Regional Development of the Nervous System
Alar and Basal Plates
Spinal Cord
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
Mesencephalon
Diencephalon
Telencephalon
Somites: Development of Vertebrae
Clinical Connections
Neural Tube Defects
Spina Bifida
Arnold-Chiari Malformation
Anencephaly
Summary
Applications
References

  1. Regional Anatomy and Blood Supply

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Spinal Cord
Surface Features
Spinal Cord Segments and Enlargements
Segmental Innervation: Dermatomes and Myotomes
Internal Organization
Gray Matter
White Matter
Commissures
Level Variation in Cord Structure
Clinical Connections
Relationship of Symptoms to Lesions within the Pyramidal Tract
Brainstem
Surface Features
Medulla and Pons: Anterior Aspect
Medulla and Pons: Posterior Aspect
Midbrain: Anterior and Posterior Aspects
Internal Organization
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
Surface Features
Lobes of the Cerebral Hemisphere
Diencephalon
Internal Organization
Ventricular System
White Matter and the Basal Ganglia
White Matter of the Cerebral Hemisphere
Basal Ganglia
Centrals and Cs
Clinical Connections
Association Neurons of the Cortex and Language Deficits
Blood Supply of the CNS
Summary
Applications
References

  1. Cells of the Nervous System

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Neurons
Properties Associated with Neurons
The Plasma Membrane
Classification of Neurons
Parts of the Neuron Defined According to Function
Soma (Cell Body)
Axon
Dendrites
Nerve Terminals
Organelles
Axoplasmic Transport and Axoplasmic Flow
Clinical Connections
Peripheral Nerve Regeneration
Retrograde Axonal Transport and Nervous System Pathology
Neuroglia
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Schwann Cells and Satellite Cells
Clinical Connections
Summary
Applications
References

  1. Cellular Neurobiology

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Ion Channels and Electrical Activity in Neurons
The Resting Membrane Potential
Factors That Determine Flow of Current across the Membrane
Membrane Potential
Electrical Signals of Neurons
Receptor (Generator) Potential
Action Potential
Propagation of the Action Potential
Myelin and Conduction in Myelinated Axons
Postsynaptic Potentials
Clinical Connections
Multiple Sclerosis
Synapses and Synaptic Transmission
The Synapse
The Presynaptic Neuron
The Postsynaptic Neuron
Chemical Synaptic Transmission
Synthesis
Storage
Release
Transmitter-Receptor Interaction
Transmitter-Gated Ion Channels
Glutamate-Gated Channels
GABA-Gated and Glycine-Gated Channels
G-Protein-Coupled Receptors and Effector Systems
Direct Modulation of Ion Channels by G-Proteins
Second-Messenger Cascades
Postsynaptic Responses Involving Gene Expression
Inactivation
Gap Junctions and Electrical Synapses
Clinical Connections
Parkinson’s Disease
Biologic Depression
Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disorder
Phenylketoneuria
Therapeutic Drugs Affecting Transmitter Inactivation
Synaptic Plasticity
Summary
Applications
References

Part II Anatomy of the Major Regions of the Central Nervous System and Their Blood Supply

  1. Spinal Cord and Brainstem

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Spinal Cord
Meninges of the Spinal Cord
Dura Mater
Pia Mater
Arachnoid Mater
Nuclei of the Spinal Gray Matter and Rexed’s Lamina
Nuclei
Rexed’s Laminae
Fiber Tracts of the Spinal Cord
Spinospinal (Propriospinal) System
Dorsal Columns
Spinothalamic Tract
Spinocerebellar Tracts
Lateral Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tract
Blood Supply of the Spinal Cord
Posterior Spinal Arteries
Anterior Spinal Artery
Spinal Veins
Spinal Cord–Vertebrae Relations
Vertebral Canal and Intervertebral Foramina
Position of the Spinal Cord within the Vertebral Column
The Vertebral Column and Intervertebral Discs
Spinal Cord Segments and Their Relation to Adjacent Vertebrae
Clinical Connections
Vascular Disorders of the Spinal Cord
Extrinsic–Intrinsic Spinal Cord Lesions
Herniation of the Vertebral Disc
Vertebral Fractures and Their Consequences for the Spinal Cord
Cervical Spondylosis
Brainstem
Cross-Section Correlations: Recognizing Level
Reticular Formation
Anatomicofunctional Zones
Connections of the Reticular Formation
Afferent Projections
Efferent Projections
Functions of the Reticular Formation
Clinical Connections
Control of the Level of Consciousness
Summary
Applications
References

  1. Diencephalon and Cerebellum

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Diencephalon
Epithalamus
Thalamus
Topographical Organization
General Functional Organization
Functions of the Thalamus
Blood Supply
Hypothalamus
Subdivisions and Nuclei of the Hypothalamus
Input to the Hypothalamus
Output from the Hypothalamus
Structural Links to the Pituitary Gland
Blood Supply
Functions of the Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
Blood Supply
Clinical Connections
Thalamic Syndrome
Hypothalamic Syndromes
Cerebellum
Clinical Connections
Summary
Applications
References

  1. Cerebral Hemispheres and Vascular Supply

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Cerebral Cortex
Gyri and Sulci of the Cerebral Cortex
Lateral Hemispheral Surface
Medial Hemispheral Surface
Inferior Hemispheral Surface
Further Organization of the Cortex
Layers of the Cerebral Cortex
Cells and Layers of the Neocortex
Cortical Columns
Brodmann’s Map
Functional Areas
Basal Ganglia
Gross Anatomy
General Anatomy of Circuits through the Basal Ganglia
Clinical Connections
Involuntary Movements Attributed to Basal Ganglia Dysfunction
Internal Capsule
Blood Supply of The Cerebral Hemisphere
Middle Cerebral Artery
Cortical Branches
Penetrating Branches
Anterior Cerebral Artery
Cortical Branches
Penetrating Branches
Internal Carotid Artery
Posterior Cerebral Artery
Cortical Branches
Penetrating Branches
Blood Supply of the Internal Capsule and Basal Ganglia
Internal Capsule
Basal Ganglia
Clinical Connections
Middle Cerebral Artery
Anterior Cerebral Artery
Internal Carotid Artery
Posterior Cerebral Artery
Summary
Applications
References

Part III Somatosensory and Motor Systems for the Extremities and Trunk

  1. Introduction to the Somatic Sensory and Motor Systems

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Somatosensory Systems
General Anatomical Plan
Receptors
Primary Afferent Neurons
Prethalamic Relay
Decussations
Thalamic Relay
Cerebral Cortex
Topographic Organization
Other Connections of Sensory Pathways
General Functional Plan
Parallel Processing
Efferent Modulation
Somatic Motor Systems
General Anatomical Plan and Definitions
Upper Motor Neurons
Decussations and Laterality
Synapse on Lower Motor Neurons
Efferent Fibers
Neuromuscular Junction
Modulation of Upper Motor Neuron Systems
Topographic Organization
General Functional Plan
Parallel Operation and Locus of Control
Feedback and Feedforward Control Systems
Reciprocal Innervation
Synergistic Movements
Pattern Generator–Dependent Movements
Types of Motor Activity in Functional Movement
Background Muscular Activity (Tonus)
Types of Movement from Reflexive to Voluntary
Reflexes
Voluntary Movements
Clinical Connections
Summary
Applications
References

  1. The Somatosensory System for the Extremities and Trunk

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Somatic Receptors
General Patterns of Organization
The Classification of Receptors
Classification by Structure
Classification by the Source of the Stimulus and Location of the Receptor
Classification by the Type of Stimulus Energy That Most Readily Excites the Receptor
Classification by the Rate of Adaptation
The Receptive Field
Specific Somatosensory Receptors
Pain and Thermal Receptors
Mechanoreceptors in the Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues
Mechanoreceptors in Deep Tissues: Proprioceptors
Mechanoreceptors in Joints
Function
Peripheral Receptor Information: Uses and Actions in the CNS
Information Coding in the Receptor and Its Axon
Cutaneous Receptive Fields
Point Localization and Two-Point Discrimination
Clinical Connections
Pressure and Vibration Sensitivity
Anatomical and Functional Organization of Somatic Sensory Pathways
Somatic Afferent Pathways
First-Order Neuron
Second-Order Neuron
Third-Order Neuron
Central Processing Centers
Generalized Processing of Somatic Sensory Information
Organization of Sensory Processing
Somatic Sensory Pathways for the Head
Trigeminal Nerve
Somatic Sensory Pathways for the Body
Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscal System
Anterolateral System
Clinical Connections
Lesions of the Sensory Pathways
Summary
Applications
References

  1. The Motor System for the Extremities and Trunk

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Motor Pathways
General Plan of the Motor System
Upper Motor Neurons
Upper Motor Neurons of the Brain
Primary Motor Cortex
Premotor Area
Supplementary Motor Area
Precentral Gyrus
Corticospinal Tract
Anterior Corticospinal Tract
Lateral Corticospinal Tract
Crossing of the Motor Pathways
Lower Motor Neurons
Motor Units
Neuromuscular Junction
Reflexes
Spinal Reflexes
Monosynaptic Reflexes
Polysynaptic Reflexes
Central Pattern Generators
Voluntary Movement Control
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia in Movement Control
Cerebellum
Basal Ganglia
Modulation of Voluntary Movement
Clinical Connections
Lesions of Upper Motor Neurons
Lesions of Lower Motor Neurons
Motor Pathway Dysfunction
Summary
Applications
References

  1. The Visual System

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Anatomy of the Eye
Cornea
Pupil and Iris
Lens
Retina
Structure of the Retina
Retinal Cells
Retinal Pathways
Optic Nerve
Optic Chiasm
Optic Tract
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Optic Radiations
Primary Visual Cortex
Visual Association Areas
Visual Pathways
Visual Fields
Visual Perception
Color Vision
Depth Perception
Clinical Connections
Lesions in the Visual Pathway
Blindness
Hemianopia
Summary
Applications
References

  1. The Auditory System

Learning Outcomes
Acronyms
Introduction
Anatomy of the Ear
Outer Ear
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
Hair Cells and the Cochlea
Vestibular System
Central Auditory Pathways
Auditory Pathway
Cochlear Nerve
Brainstem Auditory Nuclei
Auditory Cortex
Tonotopic Organization
Binaural Cues
Auditory Localization
Auditory Perception
Clinical Connections
Lesions of the Auditory Pathway
Summary
Applications
References

Part IV Somatosensory and Motor Systems of the Head and Neck

  1. Brainstem I: Cranial Nerves Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Overview of the Cranial Nerves
    Olfactory Nerve (I)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Olfactory Nerve
    Olfaction, Emotion, and Memory
    Anosmia
    Optic Nerve (II)
    Cranial Nerves Innervating The Extraocular Muscles
    Oculomotor Nerve (III)
    Trochlear Nerve (IV)
    Abducens Nerve (VI)
    Combined Actions of Cranial Nerves III, IV, and VI
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of Eye Movement
    Disorders of Eye Movements
    Lesions of Cranial Nerves III, IV, and VI
    Trigeminal Nerve (V)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Trigeminal Nerve
    Lesions of the Trigeminal Nerve
    Facial Nerve (VII)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Facial Nerve
    Lesions of the Facial Nerve
    Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)
    Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve
    Lesions of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve
    Vagus Nerve (X)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Vagus Nerve
    Lesions of the Vagus Nerve
    Accessory Nerve (XI)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Accessory Nerve
    Lesions of the Accessory Nerve
    Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)
    Clinical Connections
    Clinical Evaluation of the Hypoglossal Nerve
    Lesions of the Hypoglossal Nerve
    Summary of The Clinical Examination of The Cranial Nerves
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  2. Brainstem II: Systems and Pathways Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Somatosensory Systems For The Head and Neck
    The Trigeminal Nerve and Associated Receptors
    Second-Order Neurons
    Trigeminal Lemniscus for Fine Touch and Dental Pressure
    Trigeminal Thalamic Tract for Pain and Temperature as Well as Crude Touch
    Third-Order Neurons of the Trigeminal System
    Functions of the Trigeminal System
    Clinical Connections
    Somatic Motor Systems of the Head and Neck
    Brainstem Reflexes
    Jaw-Jerk Reflex
    The Blink and Corneal Reflexes
    Blink Reflex
    Corneal Reflex
    Stapedius Reflex
    Swallowing Reflex
    Corticobulbar Tract
    Clinical Connections
    Dysarthria
    Progressive Bulbar Palsy
    Pseudobulbar Palsy
    Conditions Affecting the Blink Reflex
    Reticular Formation
    Anatomical Characteristics of Reticular Formation Neurons
    Functional Characteristics of Reticular Formation Neurons
    Functions of the Reticular Formation
    Control of the Level of Consciousness
    Modulation of Pain
    Regulation of Motor Activity
    Coordination of Vision (the Gaze Centers)
    Control of Autonomic Activity
    Clinical Connections
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  3. Brainstem III: Organization, Blood Supply, and Clinical Correlates Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Organizational Principles For An Understanding Of Internal Brainstem Structure
    Representative Cross Sections Through the Brainstem
    Blood Supply of The Brainstem and Neurovascular Syndromes
    Review of the Blood Supply
    Clinical Connections
    Medulla
    Lateral Medullary Syndrome (Wallenberg’s Syndrome)
    Medial Medullary Syndrome (Alternating Hypoglossal Hemiplegia)
    Pons
    Medial (Paramedian) Inferior Pontine Syndrome
    Lateral Superior Pontine Syndrome (Syndrome of the Superior Cerebellar Artery)
    Complete Basilar Syndrome
    Locked-In Syndrome
    Midbrain
    Weber’s Syndrome
    Benedikt’s Syndrome
    Associated Signs
    Summary
    Applications
    References

Part V Special Functional Systems of the CNS: Motor and Sensory Systems

  1. Pain and Its Modulation Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Foundational Information
    Anatomy and Function
    The Periphery
    Sensitization of the Pain System, Hyperalgesia, and Allodynia
    Peripheral Sensitization
    Peripheral Nerve Injury and Pain
    The Spinal Cord
    Central Sensitization
    Ascending Systems
    Projections to the Brainstem and Thalamus
    Cerebral Cortex
    Pain Modulation
    Theories of Pain Modulation
    Clinical Connections
    Pain Management from the Periphery
    Touch and Massage
    Heat and Cold
    Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation
    Common Drugs for the Management of Pain
    Acupuncture
    Chronic Pain
    Clinical Connections
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  2. Auditory and Vestibular Systems Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Inner Ear
    Labyrinth
    Hair Cells
    Auditory System
    Foundational Information
    The Peripheral Apparatus
    Outer Ear
    Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
    Inner Ear
    Sensory End Organs
    Primary Afferents
    Projections
    Second-Order Neurons
    Third-Order Neurons
    Fourth-Order Neurons
    Decussations
    Function
    Auditory Reflexes
    Clinical Connections
    Vestibular System
    Foundational Information
    Sensory End Organs
    Utricular and Saccular Maculae (Otolith Organs)
    Semicircular Canals
    Primary Afferents
    Vestibular Nuclei
    Commissural Inhibitory System
    The Vestibular Sensory System
    Projections
    Cerebral Cortex
    Function
    The Vestibular Motor System
    Spinal Cord Projections
    Reticular Formation
    Extraocular Projections
    Cerebellum
    Reflexes
    Vestibulocollic (Neck) Reflexes
    Vestibulospinal Reflexes
    Vestibulo-ocular Reflexes
    Integration in the Vestibular System
    Role in Postural Control
    Convergence onto Neurons of the Vestibular Nuclei
    Convergence onto Neurons of the Cerebral Cortex
    Vestibular and Neck Reflexes
    Clinical Connections
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  3. Visual System Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Sensory End Organs and Primary Afferents
    The Retina
    Cell Types and Connections
    Sensory Transduction in Rods and Cones
    Ganglion Cells
    Optic Disk and the Blind Spot
    Blood Supply
    Clinical Connections
    Projections
    Overview of Terminology
    Primary Afferents
    Second-Order Neurons
    Optic Nerve, Chiasm, and Tract
    Third-Order Neurons
    Other Projections of Second-Order Optic Tract Axons
    Hypothalamic
    Midbrain
    Processing of Functional Information
    Neurons of the Geniculocalcarine System
    Retinal Ganglion Cells
    Neurons of the Lateral Geniculate Body
    Neurons of the Primary Visual Cortex
    Extraction of the Visual Pattern by Cells of the Visual Cortex
    Higher Visual Processing
    Visual Reflexes
    Pupillary Size
    Fixation Reflex
    The Accommodation–Convergence Reaction (Near Reflex)
    Clinical Connections
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  4. Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Cerebellum
    Circuitry of the Cerebellum
    Layers
    Peduncles, Inputs, and Outputs
    Cerebellar Input–Output Connections in Relation to Function
    Archicerebellar Connections and Function
    Paleocerebellar Connections and Function
    Five Tracts of the Paleocerebellum
    Neocerebellar Connections and Function
    Motor Learning and the Cerebellum
    Clinical Connections
    Syndromes
    Archicerebellar Syndrome
    Paleocerebellar Syndrome
    Neocerebellar Syndrome
    Cerebellar Dysarthria
    Physical Rehabilitation
    Examination Strategies
    Intervention Strategies
    Basal Ganglia
    Anatomy and Function of Circuits through the Basal Ganglia
    The Concept of Disinhibition
    Direct and Indirect Pathways
    Parallel Channels
    Clinical Connections
    Parkinson’s Disease
    Etiology
    The Brain Disorder in PD: Pathophysiology
    Pharmacological Management
    Levodopa (L-Dopa)
    Dopamine Receptor Agonists
    Dopamine Metabolism Inhibitors
    Anticholinergic Agents
    Amantadine
    Neurotrophic Factors
    Surgical Interventions
    Modern Pallidotomy and Subthalamotomy
    Deep Brain Stimulation
    Fetal Nigral Transplantation
    Physical Rehabilitation
    Examination Strategies
    Intervention Strategies
    Huntington’s Disease (Chorea)
    The Genetic Abnormality in HD
    Medical Management
    Physical Rehabilitation
    Examination Strategies
    Intervention Strategies
    Hemiballismus
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  5. Voluntary Movement Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    The Cerebral Cortex and Voluntary Movement
    Cortical Areas Subserving Voluntary Movement
    Frontal Cortex
    Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
    Premotor Cortex
    Parietal Cortex
    Limbic Areas
    Connections of the Cortical Motor Areas
    Cortical Connections
    Subcortical Connections
    The Control of Voluntary Movement
    Perceptual Action System and Haptic Sensing
    Independent Finger Movements in Other Functions
    Grasping
    Neuroanatomical Areas Controlling Grasping
    Orienting Movements of the Eyes, Head, and Neck
    Gait
    Higher Cortical Processing and Control of Movement
    Clinical Connections
    Disorders of Gait
    Apraxia
    Ideational Apraxia
    Ideomotor Apraxia
    Kinetic Apraxia
    Oral Apraxia (Facial-Oral Apraxia)
    Apraxia and Aphasia
    Hypothetical Scheme for the Learning and Execution of Goal-Directed Purposeful Movement
    Motivation, the Decision to Act, and Learning
    Planning
    Execution
    Automatization
    Summary
    Applications
    References

Part VI Special Functional Systems of the CNS: Reflexes and Control

  1. Autonomic Nervous System Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Autonomic System Overview
    Basic Structure
    Neurotransmitters
    Sympathetic Nervous System
    Parasympathetic Nervous System
    Enteric Nervous System
    Autonomic Reflexes
    Baroreceptor Reflex
    Vagal Reflexes
    Sweating and Thermoregulation
    Clinical Connections
    Autonomic Dysfunction
    Hypertension
    Hypotension
    Heart Rate Disorders
    Asthma and Bronchospasm
    Irritable Bowel Syndrome
    Diabetes
    Neurogenic Bladder Dysfunction
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  2. Reflexes and Spinal Cord Mechanisms Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Spinal Reflexes
    Monosynaptic Reflexes
    Polysynaptic Reflexes
    Somatic Reflexes
    Flexor Reflex
    Withdrawal Reflex
    Crossed Extensor Reflex
    Reciprocal Inhibition
    Autonomic Reflexes
    Defecation Reflex
    Micturition Reflex
    Baroreceptor Reflex
    Clinical Connections
    Reflex Testing
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  3. Motor Control Systems Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Motor Control Hierarchy
    Central Pattern Generators
    Motor Cortex and Motor Planning
    Basal Ganglia and Movement Regulation
    Cerebellum and Coordination
    Peripheral Motor Neurons
    Spinal Motor Control
    Reflexes in Motor Control
    Movement Disorders
    Clinical Connections
    Parkinson’s Disease and Motor Control
    Stroke and Motor Control
    Cerebellar Lesions and Coordination Deficits
    Motor Neuron Diseases
    Examination and Diagnosis of Motor Control Disorders
    Physical Rehabilitation
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  4. Control of Posture and Locomotion Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Postural Control Systems
    Sensory Inputs for Posture
    Somatosensory Feedback
    Vestibular Feedback
    Visual Feedback
    Motor Control of Posture
    Spinal Mechanisms in Postural Control
    Cerebellar and Basal Ganglia Contributions
    Corticospinal Control
    Balance Control and Gait
    Gait Cycle and Phases of Locomotion
    Central Pattern Generators for Locomotion
    Postural Control in Walking
    Clinical Connections
    Gait Disorders
    Parkinson’s Disease
    Cerebellar Ataxia
    Spinal Cord Injuries
    Clinical Examination for Posture and Gait
    Summary
    Applications
    References

  5. Sleep and Wakefulness Learning Outcomes
    Acronyms
    Introduction
    Sleep States
    Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
    Non-REM (NREM) Sleep
    Sleep Stages
    Physiology of Sleep
    Sleep-Wake Cycle Regulation
    The Circadian Rhythm
    Neurological Control of Sleep
    Neurotransmitters Involved in Sleep
    Sleep Disorders
    Insomnia
    Sleep Apnea
    Narcolepsy
    Parasomnias
    Sleep Deprivation
    Clinical Connections
    Sleep and Cognitive Function
    Summary
    Applications
    References

 

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