C Primer Plus 6th Edition by Stephen Prata ISBN 0321928423 978-0321928429

1 Getting Ready

Whence C?

Why C?

Design Features

Efficiency

Portability

Power and Flexibility

Programmer Oriented

Shortcomings

Whither C?

What Computers Do

High-level Computer Languages and Compilers

Language Standards

The First ANSI/ISO C Standard

The C99 Standard

The C11 Standard

Using C: Seven Steps

Step 1: Define the Program Objectives

Step 2: Design the Program

Step 3: Write the Code

Step 4: Compile

Step 5: Run the Program

Step 6: Test and Debug the Program

Step 7: Maintain and Modify the Program

Commentary

Programming Mechanics

Object Code Files, Executable Files, and Libraries

Unix System

The GNU Compiler Collection and the LLVM Project

Linux Systems

Command-Line Compilers for the PC

Integrated Development Environments (Windows)

The Windows/Linux Option

C on the Macintosh

How This Book Is Organized

Conventions Used in This Book

Typeface

Program Output

Special Elements

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercise

2 Introducing C

A Simple Example of C

The Example Explained

Pass 1: Quick Synopsis

Pass 2: Program Details

The Structure of a Simple Program

Tips on Making Your Programs Readable

Taking Another Step in Using C

Documentation

Multiple Declarations

Multiplication

Printing Multiple Values

While You’re at It—Multiple Functions

Introducing Debugging

Syntax Errors

Semantic Errors

Program State

Keywords and Reserved Identifiers

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

3 Data and C

A Sample Program

What’s New in This Program?

Data Variables and Constants

Data: Data-Type Keywords

Integer Versus Floating-Point Types

The Integer

The Floating-Point Number

Basic C Data Types

The int Type

Other Integer Types

Using Characters: Type char

The _Bool Type

Portable Types: stdint.h and inttypes.h

Types float, double, and long double

Complex and Imaginary Types

Beyond the Basic Types

Type Sizes

Using Data Types

Arguments and Pitfalls

One More Example: Escape Sequences

What Happens When the Program Runs

Flushing the Output

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

4 Character Strings and Formatted Input/Output

Introductory Program

Character Strings: An Introduction

Type char Arrays and the Null Character

Using Strings

The strlen() Function

Constants and the C Preprocessor

The const Modifier

Manifest Constants on the Job

Exploring and Exploiting printf() and scanf()

The printf() Function

Using printf()

Conversion Specification Modifiers for printf()

What Does a Conversion Specification Convert?

Using scanf()

The * Modifier with printf() and scanf()

Usage Tips for printf()

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

5 Operators, Expressions, and Statements

Introducing Loops

Fundamental Operators

Assignment Operator: =

Addition Operator: +

Subtraction Operator: –

Sign Operators: – and +

Multiplication Operator: *

Division Operator: /

Operator Precedence

Precedence and the Order of Evaluation

Some Additional Operators

The sizeof Operator and the size_t Type

Modulus Operator: %

Increment and Decrement Operators: ++ and —

Decrementing: —

Precedence

Don’t Be Too Clever

Expressions and Statements

Expressions

Statements

Compound Statements (Blocks)

Type Conversions

The Cast Operator

Function with Arguments

A Sample Program

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

6 C Control Statements: Looping

Revisiting the while Loop

Program Comments

C-Style Reading Loop

The while Statement

Terminating a while Loop

When a Loop Terminates

while: An Entry-Condition Loop

Syntax Points

Which Is Bigger: Using Relational Operators and Expressions

What Is Truth?

What Else Is True?

Troubles with Truth

The New _Bool Type

Precedence of Relational Operators

Indefinite Loops and Counting Loops

The for Loop

Using for for Flexibility

More Assignment Operators: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=

The Comma Operator

Zeno Meets the for Loop

An Exit-Condition Loop: do while

Which Loop?

Nested Loops

Program Discussion

A Nested Variation

Introducing Arrays

Using a for Loop with an Array

A Loop Example Using a Function Return Value

Program Discussion

Using Functions with Return Values

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

7 C Control Statements: Branching and Jumps

The if Statement

Adding else to the if Statement

Another Example: Introducing getchar() and putchar()

The ctype.h Family of Character Functions

Multiple Choice else if

Pairing else with if

More Nested ifs

Let’s Get Logical

Alternate Spellings: The iso646.h Header File

Precedence

Order of Evaluation

Ranges

A Word-Count Program

The Conditional Operator: ?:

Loop Aids: continue and break

The continue Statement

The break Statement

Multiple Choice: switch and break

Using the switch Statement

Reading Only the First Character of a Line

Multiple Labels

switch and if else

The goto Statement

Avoiding goto

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

8 Character Input/Output and Input Validation

Single-Character I/O: getchar() and putchar()

Buffers

Terminating Keyboard Input

Files, Streams, and Keyboard Input

The End of File

Redirection and Files

Unix, Linux, and Windows Command Prompt Redirection

Creating a Friendlier User Interface

Working with Buffered Input

Mixing Numeric and Character Input

Input Validation

Analyzing the Program

The Input Stream and Numbers

Menu Browsing

Tasks

Toward a Smoother Execution

Mixing Character and Numeric Input

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

9 Functions

Reviewing Functions

Creating and Using a Simple Function

Analyzing the Program

Function Arguments

Defining a Function with an Argument: Formal Parameters

Prototyping a Function with Arguments

Calling a Function with an Argument: Actual Arguments

The Black-Box Viewpoint

Returning a Value from a Function with return

Function Types

ANSI C Function Prototyping

The Problem

The ANSI C Solution

No Arguments and Unspecified Arguments

Hooray for Prototypes

Recursion

Recursion Revealed

Recursion Fundamentals

Tail Recursion

Recursion and Reversal

Recursion Pros and Cons

Compiling Programs with Two or More Source Code Files

Unix

Linux

DOS Command-Line Compilers

Windows and Apple IDE Compilers

Using Header Files

Finding Addresses: The & Operator

Altering Variables in the Calling Function

Pointers: A First Look

The Indirection Operator: *

Declaring Pointers

Using Pointers to Communicate Between Functions

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

10 Arrays and Pointers

Arrays

Initialization

Designated Initializers (C99)

Assigning Array Values

Array Bounds

Specifying an Array Size

Multidimensional Arrays

Initializing a Two-Dimensional Array

More Dimensions

Pointers and Arrays

Functions, Arrays, and Pointers

Using Pointer Parameters

Comment: Pointers and Arrays

Pointer Operations

Protecting Array Contents

Using const with Formal Parameters

More About const

Pointers and Multidimensional Arrays

Pointers to Multidimensional Arrays

Pointer Compatibility

Functions and Multidimensional Arrays

Variable-Length Arrays (VLAs)

Compound Literals

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

11 Character Strings and String Functions

Representing Strings and String I/O

Defining Strings Within a Program

Pointers and Strings

String Input

Creating Space

The Unfortunate gets() Function

The Alternatives to gets()

The scanf() Function

String Output

The puts() Function

The fputs() Function

The printf() Function

The Do-It-Yourself Option

String Functions

The strlen() Function

The strcat() Function

The strncat() Function

The strcmp() Function

The strcpy() and strncpy() Functions

The sprintf() Function

Other String Functions

A String Example: Sorting Strings

Sorting Pointers Instead of Strings

The Selection Sort Algorithm

The ctype.h Character Functions and Strings

Command-Line Arguments

Command-Line Arguments in Integrated Environments

Command-Line Arguments with the Macintosh

String-to-Number Conversions

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

12 Storage Classes, Linkage, and Memory Management

Storage Classes

Scope

Linkage

Storage Duration

Automatic Variables

Register Variables

Static Variables with Block Scope

Static Variables with External Linkage

Static Variables with Internal Linkage

Multiple Files

Storage-Class Specifier Roundup

Storage Classes and Functions

Which Storage Class?

A Random-Number Function and a Static Variable

Roll ’Em

Allocated Memory: malloc() and free()

The Importance of free()

The calloc() Function

Dynamic Memory Allocation and Variable-Length Arrays

Storage Classes and Dynamic Memory Allocation

ANSI C Type Qualifiers

The const Type Qualifier

The volatile Type Qualifier

The restrict Type Qualifier

The _Atomic Type Qualifier (C11)

New Places for Old Keywords

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

13 File Input/Output

Communicating with Files

What Is a File?

The Text Mode and the Binary Mode

Levels of I/O

Standard Files

Standard I/O

Checking for Command-Line Arguments

The fopen() Function

The getc() and putc() Functions

End-of-File

The fclose() Function

Pointers to the Standard Files

A Simple-Minded File-Condensing Program

File I/O: fprintf(), fscanf(), fgets(), and fputs()

The fprintf() and fscanf() Functions

The fgets() and fputs() Functions

Adventures in Random Access: fseek() and ftell()

How fseek() and ftell() Work

Binary Versus Text Mode

Portability

The fgetpos() and fsetpos() Functions

Behind the Scenes with Standard I/O

Other Standard I/O Functions

The int ungetc(int c, FILE *fp) Function

The int fflush() Function

The int setvbuf() Function

Binary I/O: fread() and fwrite()

The size_t fwrite() Function

The size_t fread() Function

The int feof(FILE *fp) and int ferror(FILE *fp) Functions

An fread() and fwrite() Example

Random Access with Binary I/O

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

14 Structures and Other Data Forms

Sample Problem: Creating an Inventory of Books

Setting Up the Structure Declaration

Defining a Structure Variable

Initializing a Structure

Gaining Access to Structure Members

Initializers for Structures

Arrays of Structures

Declaring an Array of Structures

Identifying Members of an Array of Structures

Program Discussion

Nested Structures

Pointers to Structures

Declaring and Initializing a Structure Pointer

Member Access by Pointer

Telling Functions About Structures

Passing Structure Members

Using the Structure Address

Passing a Structure as an Argument

More on Structure Features

Structures or Pointer to Structures?

Character Arrays or Character Pointers in a Structure

Structure, Pointers, and malloc()

Compound Literals and Structures (C99)

Flexible Array Members (C99)

Anonymous Structures (C11)

Functions Using an Array of Structures

Saving the Structure Contents in a File

A Structure-Saving Example

Program Points

Structures: What Next?

Unions: A Quick Look

Using Unions

Anonymous Unions (C11)

Enumerated Types

enum Constants

Default Values

Assigned Values

enum Usage

Shared Namespaces

typedef: A Quick Look

Fancy Declarations

Functions and Pointers

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

15 Bit Fiddling

Binary Numbers, Bits, and Bytes

Binary Integers

Signed Integers

Binary Floating Point

Other Number Bases

Octal

Hexadecimal

C’s Bitwise Operators

Bitwise Logical Operators

Usage: Masks

Usage: Turning Bits On (Setting Bits)

Usage: Turning Bits Off (Clearing Bits)

Usage: Toggling Bits

Usage: Checking the Value of a Bit

Bitwise Shift Operators

Programming Example

Another Example

Bit Fields

Bit-Field Example

Bit Fields and Bitwise Operators

Alignment Features (C11)

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

16 The C Preprocessor and the C Library

First Steps in Translating a Program

Manifest Constants: #define

Tokens

Redefining Constants

Using Arguments with #define

Creating Strings from Macro Arguments: The # Operator

Preprocessor Glue: The ## Operator

Variadic Macros: … and __VA_ARGS__

Macro or Function?

File Inclusion: #include

Header Files: An Example

Uses for Header Files

Other Directives

The #undef Directive

Being Defined—The C Preprocessor Perspective

Conditional Compilation

Predefined Macros

#line and #error

#pragma

Generic Selection (C11)

Inline Functions (C99)

_Noreturn Functions (C11)

The C Library

Gaining Access to the C Library

Using the Library Descriptions

The Math Library

A Little Trigonometry

Type Variants

The tgmath.h Library (C99)

The General Utilities Library

The exit() and atexit() Functions

The qsort() Function

The Assert Library

Using assert

_Static_assert (C11)

memcpy() and memmove() from the string.h Library

Variable Arguments: stdarg.h

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

17 Advanced Data Representation

Exploring Data Representation

Beyond the Array to the Linked List

Using a Linked List

Afterthoughts

Abstract Data Types (ADTs)

Getting Abstract

Building an Interface

Using the Interface

Implementing the Interface

Getting Queued with an ADT

Defining the Queue Abstract Data Type

Defining an Interface

Implementing the Interface Data Representation

Testing the Queue

Simulating with a Queue

The Linked List Versus the Array

Binary Search Trees

A Binary Tree ADT

The Binary Search Tree Interface

The Binary Tree Implementation

Trying the Tree

Tree Thoughts

Other Directions

Key Concepts

Summary

Review Questions

Programming Exercises

A Answers to the Review Questions

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 1

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 2

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 3

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 4

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 5

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 6

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 7

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 8

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 9

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 10

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 11

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 12

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 13

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 14

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 15

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 16

Answers to Review Questions for Chapter 17

B Reference Section

Section I: Additional Reading

Online Resources

C Language Books

Programming Books

Reference Books

C++ Books

Section II: C Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Relational Operators

Assignment Operators

Logical Operators

The Conditional Operator

Pointer-Related Operators

Sign Operators

Structure and Union Operators

Bitwise Operators

Miscellaneous Operators

Section III: Basic Types and Storage Classes

Summary: The Basic Data Types

Summary: How to Declare a Simple Variable

Summary: Qualifiers

Section IV: Expressions, Statements, and Program Flow

Summary: Expressions and Statements

Summary: The while Statement

Summary: The for Statement

Summary: The do while Statement

Summary: Using if Statements for Making Choices

Summary: Multiple Choice with switch

Summary: Program Jumps

Section V: The Standard ANSI C Library with C99 and C11 Additions

Diagnostics: assert.h

Complex Numbers: complex.h (C99)

Character Handling: ctype.h

Error Reporting: errno.h

Floating-Point Environment: fenv.h (C99)

Floating-point Characteristics: float.h

Format Conversion of Integer Types: inttypes.h (C99)

Alternative Spellings: iso646.h

Localization: locale.h

Math Library: math.h

Non-Local Jumps: setjmp.h

Signal Handling: signal.h

Alignment: stdalign.h (C11)

Variable Arguments: stdarg.h

Atomics Support: stdatomic.h (C11)

Boolean Support: stdbool.h (C99)

Common Definitions: stddef.h

Integer Types: stdint.h

Standard I/O Library: stdio.h

General Utilities: stdlib.h

_Noreturn: stdnoreturn.h

String Handling: string.h

Type-Generic Math: tgmath.h (C99)

Threads: threads.h (C11)

Date and Time: time.h

Unicode Utilities: uchar.h (C11)

Extended Multibyte and Wide-Character Utilities: wchar.h (C99)

Wide Character Classification and Mapping Utilities: wctype.h (C99)

Section VI: Extended Integer Types

Exact-Width Types

Minimum-Width Types

Fastest Minimum-Width Types

Maximum-Width Types

Integers That Can Hold Pointer Values

Extended Integer Constants

Section VII: Expanded Character Support

Trigraph Sequences

Digraphs

Alternative Spellings: iso646.h

Multibyte Characters

Universal Character Names (UCNs)

Wide Characters

Wide Characters and Multibyte Characters

Section VIII: C99/C11 Numeric Computational Enhancements

The IEC Floating-Point Standard

The fenv.h Header File

The STDC FP_CONTRACT Pragma

Additions to the math.h Library

Support for Complex Numbers

Section IX: Differences Between C and C++

Function Prototypes

char Constants

The const Modifier

Structures and Unions

Enumerations

Pointer-to-void

Boolean Types

Alternative Spellings

Wide-Character Support

Complex Types

Inline Functions

C99/11 Features Not Found in C++11

Index