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ISBN 10: 1119277224
ISBN 13: 978-1119277224
Author: John Olmsted, Gregory Williams, Robert Burk
An introduction to general chemistry designed for Canadian courses
This text is designed specifically for Canadian students and professors. This is a loose-leaf print version of Chemistry, 3rd Canadian Edition. The general chemistry text includes SI units, IUPAC standards, and content to introduce readers to the curriculum of many Canadian educational institutions. Students are motivated to gain knowledge by exploring chapter topics ranging from the fundamental concepts of chemistry to the theories of chemical bonding. This text offers accessible language and strategies for chemistry problem-solving.
Chemistry 3rd Table of contents:
Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts of Chemistry
Introduction: Our World Is Molecular
1.1 Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds
Atoms
Molecules
Chemical Formulas
1.2 Measurements in Chemistry
Physical Properties
Focus 1-1 Tools for Discovery: Atomic-Level Microscopy
Magnitude
Units
Unit Conversions
Precision and Accuracy
Significant Figures
1.3 Chemical Problem Solving
1.4 Counting Atoms: The Mole
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number
Molar Mass
Mass–Mole–Atom Conversions
1.5 Amounts of Compounds
Line Structures
Molar Masses of Chemical Compounds
Mass–Mole–Number Conversions for Compounds
1.6 Aqueous Solutions
Molarity
Species in Solution
Concentrations of Ionic Solutions
Dilutions
1.7 Writing Chemical Equations
Balanced Equations
Balancing Equations
1.8 The Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
1.9 Yields of Chemical Reactions
Focus 1-2 Chemistry and Life: Feeding the World
1.10 The Limiting Reactant
Tables of Amounts
Visual Summary
Chapter 2 The Behaviour of Gases
Introduction: Earth’s Atmosphere
2.1 Pressure
Units of Pressure
2.2 Describing Gases
Variations in Gas Volume
The Ideal Gas Equation
Variations on the Ideal Gas Equation
2.3 Gas Mixtures
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Describing Gas Mixtures
2.4 Gas Stoichiometry
Summary of Mole Conversions
2.5 Molecular View of Gases
Molecular Speeds
Speed and Energy
Average Kinetic Energy
Ideal Gases
2.6 Additional Gas Properties
Determination of Molar Mass
Gas Density
Rates of Gas Movement
Focus 2-1 Tools For Discovery: High Vacuum
2.7 Non-Ideal (Real) Gases
2.8 Chemistry of the Earth’s Atmosphere
Composition of the Lower Atmosphere
Vapour Pressure
Focus 2-2 Chemistry and the Environment: Does Human Activity Change the Weather?
Chemistry in the Troposphere
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of Sulphur
Visual Summary
Chapter 3 Energy and Its Conservation
Introduction: Our Energy Future
3.1 Types of Energy
Kinetic and Potential Energies
Electrical Energy
Chemical Energy
Mass
Thermal Energy
Radiant Energy
Energy Transfers and Transformations
3.2 Thermodynamics
Terms of Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy
Heat
Work
First Law of Thermodynamics
State and Path Functions
Thermodynamic Path Functions
3.3 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Features of Reaction Energies
Path Independence
Bond Energies
Reaction Energy
3.4 Measuring Energy Changes: Calorimetry
Calorimeters
Types of Calorimeters
Focus 3-1 Tools for Discovery: Calorimetry in Biology
Calculating Energy Changes
Molar Energy Change
3.5 Enthalpy
Expansion Work
Definition of Enthalpy
Energy and Enthalpy
Energy and Enthalpy of Vapourization
Enthalpies of Formation
Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions
Enthalpy Changes Under Non-Standard Conditions
Bond Energies and Enthalpies of Formation
3.6 Energy Sources
Energy and Civilization
Ultimate Energy Sources
Focus 3-2 Chemistry in Canada: The Energy Used to Produce Energy
Future Resources
Energy Conservation
Visual Summary
Chapter 4 Atoms and Light
Introduction: Lasers
4.1 Characteristics of Atoms
4.2 Characteristics of Light
Light Has Wave Aspects
The Photoelectric Effect
Light Has Particle Aspects
4.3 Absorption and Emission Spectra
Light and Atoms
Atomic Spectra
Quantization of Energy
Energy-Level Diagrams
Focus 4-1 Tools for Discovery: Spectroscopy, Observing from Afar
4.4 Properties of Electrons
Properties Shared by All Electrons
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
4.5 Quantization and Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number
Azimuthal Quantum Number
Magnetic and Spin Orientation Quantum Numbers
Sets of Quantum Numbers
4.6 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
Orbital Depictions
Orbital Size
Details of Orbital Shapes
4.7 Sunlight and the Earth
Reactions in the Thermosphere
Reactions in the Ozone Layer
The Greenhouse Effect
Focus 4-2 Chemistry and the Environment: Effects of Ultraviolet Light
Visual Summary
Chapter 5 Atomic Energies and Periodicity
Introduction: The Chemistry of Fireworks
5.1 Orbital Energies
The Effect of Nuclear Charge
Effects of Other Electrons
Screening
Focus 5-1 Tools for Discovery: Photoelectron Spectroscopy
5.2 Structure of the Periodic Table
The Pauli Exclusion Principle
The Aufbau Principle
Order of Orbital Filling
Valence Electrons
Focus 5-2 Chemical Milestones: History of the Periodic Table
5.3 Electron Configurations
Electron–Electron Repulsion
Orbitals with Nearly Equal Energies
Electron Configurations of Ions
Magnetic Properties of Atoms
Excited States
5.4 Periodicity of Atomic Properties
Underlying Patterns
Atomic Radii
Ionization Energy
Higher Ionizations
Electron Affinity
Irregularities in Ionization Energies
Sizes of Ions
5.5 Energetics of Ionic Compounds
Why Not Na2+Cl2–?
Cation Stability
Anion Stability
Trends in Lattice Energies
5.6 Ions and Chemical Periodicity
s-Block Elements
p-Block Elements
Visual Summary
Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Chemical Bonding
Introduction: Nanotechnology
6.1 Overview of Bonding
The Hydrogen Molecule
Bond Length and Bond Energy
Other Diatomic Molecules: F2
Unequal Electron Sharing
Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds
6.2 Lewis Structures
The Conventions
The Bonding Framework
Building Lewis Structures
Optimizing the Structure
Beyond the Octet
Resonance Structures
6.3 Molecular Shapes: Tetrahedral Systems
The Shape of Methane
Why a Tetrahedron?
Carbon and the Tetrahedron
The VSEPR Model
Silicon
Focus 6-1 Chemistry and Life: The Importance of Shape
6.4 Other Molecular Shapes
Steric Number 2: Linear Geometry
Steric Number 3: The Trigonal Plane
Steric Number 5: The Trigonal Bipyramid
Steric Number 6: The Octahedron
Focus 6-2 Chemical Milestones: Do Noble Gases React?
6.5 Properties of Covalent Bonds
Bond Angles
Dipole Moments
Bond Length
Bond Energy
Summary of Molecular Shapes
Visual Summary
Chapter 7 Theories of Chemical Bonding
Introduction: Photosynthesis
7.1 Localized Bonds
Orbital Overlap
Conventions of the Orbital Overlap Model
Diatomic Molecules: HF and F2
Bonding in Hydrogen Sulphide
Methane: The Need for an Expanded Model
7.2 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
Methane: sp3 Hybrid Orbitals
Other Tetrahedral Systems
General Features of Hybridization
sp2 Hybrid Orbitals
sp Hybrid Orbitals
The Participation of d Orbitals
7.3 Multiple Bonds
Bonding in Ethylene
σ Bonds and π Bonds
π Bonds Involving Oxygen Atoms
Focus 7-1 Chemistry and Life: The Alkenes
To π Bond or Not To π Bond: Carbon vs. Silicon
Acetylene: Formation of a Triple Bond
7.4 Molecular Orbital Theory: Diatomic Molecules
Molecular Orbitals of H2
Second-Row Diatomic Molecules
Evidence for Antibonding Orbitals
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules
7.5 Three-Centre π Orbitals
Ozone and the Nature of Resonance
A Composite Model of Bonding
Carbon Dioxide
Other Second-Row Triatomics
7.6 Extended π Systems
Butadiene
Carbonate Ion
Larger Delocalized π Systems
π Bonding Beyond the Second Row
7.7 Band Theory of Solids
Delocalized Orbitals in Lithium Metal
Electrical Conductivity
Insulators and Conductors: Carbon vs. Lead
Metalloids
Doped Semiconductors
Focus 7-2 Chemistry and Technology: Light-Emitting Diodes
Visual Summary
Chapter 8 Effects of Intermolecular Forces
Introduction: Opals and Butterfly Wings
8.1 Effects of Intermolecular Forces
The Halogens
Melting and Boiling Points
8.2 Types of Intermolecular Forces
Ion–Dipole Forces
Dispersion Forces
Induced Dipoles
Dipolar Forces
Hydrogen-Bonding Forces
Binary Hydrogen Compounds
8.3 Liquids
Properties of Liquids
Vapour Pressure
8.4 Forces in Solids
Magnitudes of Forces
Molecular Solids
Network Solids
Metallic Solids
Ionic Solids
Focus 8-1 Chemistry and Technology: Superconductors
8.5 Order in Solids
The Crystal Lattice and the Unit Cell
Cubic Crystals
Close-Packed Crystals
Ionic Solids
Amorphous Solids
Focus 8-2 Chemistry and Life: Liquid Crystals
Crystal Imperfections
8.6 Phase Changes
Enthalpies of Phase Changes
Phase Diagrams
Variations on Phase Diagrams
Visual Summary
Chapter 9 Properties of Solutions
Introduction: The Chemistry of Shampoo
9.1 The Nature of Solutions
Components of Solutions
Solution Concentration
9.2 Determinants of Solubility
Like Dissolves Like
Solubilities of Solids
Alloys
Solubilities of Salts
9.3 Characteristics of Aqueous Solutions
The Uniqueness of Water
Solubility Equilibrium
Energetics of Salt Solubility
Effect of Temperature
Gas–Solution Equilibria
Focus 9-1 Chemistry and Life: Scuba Diving and Henry’s Law
9.4 Colligative Properties
Vapour Pressure Reduction
Distillation
Boiling and Freezing Points
Osmosis
Determination of Molar Mass
9.5 Between Solutions and Mixtures
Colloidal Suspensions
Focus 9-2 Chemistry and the Environment: Aerosols
Surfactants
Cell Membranes
Visual Summary
Chapter 10 Organic Chemistry—Structure
Introduction: The Handedness of Life
10.1 Hydrocarbons
Drawing and Naming Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
Naming Alkanes
Structural Isomers of Alkanes
Naming Alkyl Groups
Naming Branched-Chain Alkanes
Cycloalkanes
Other Substituents
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
10.2 Aromatic Compounds
Naming Benzene Compounds
10.3 Functional Groups
Alkyl Halides
Alcohols
Ethers
Amines
Aldehydes and Ketones
Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides
Nitriles
10.4 Stereochemistry
Stereoisomers
Drawing Molecules in Three Dimensions
Conformations
Enantiomers and Diastereomers
Chirality
The R/S System for Naming Chiral Compounds
Focus 10-1 Chemistry and Life: The Importance of Chirality
Visual Summary
Chapter 11 Organic Chemistry—Reactions
Introduction: Chemical Space—How Many Possible Drug Compounds Are There?
11.1 An Introduction to Organic Reactions
Types of Organic Reactions
Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
Mechanisms and Arrow Pushing
11.2 Substitution Reactions
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
The SN2 Mechanism
Stereochemistry of SN2 Reactions
The SN1 Mechanism
Stereochemistry of SN1 Reactions
Rates of Substitution Reactions
Aromatic Substitution Reactions
11.3 Elimination Reactions
The E2 Mechanism
Selectivity of E2 Reactions
The E1 Mechanism
11.4 Addition Reactions
Hydrogenation of Alkenes
Focus 11-1 Chemistry and Technology: Hydrogenation in the Food Industry
Hydrogenation: The Function of the Catalyst
Understanding Additions to Alkenes
Markovnikov’s Rule
Addition of Water to Alkenes: Acid-Catalyzed Hydration
Electrophilic Addition of Bromine and Chlorine to Alkenes
Focus 11-2 The Green Chemistry Revolution
Visual Summary
Chapter 12 Spontaneity of Chemical Processes
Introduction: Things Become Disorganized
12.1 Spontaneity
Dispersal of Matter
Energy Dispersal
Energy and Spontaneity
Opposing Dispersal Trends
12.2 Entropy: The Measure of Dispersal
Entropy and Dispersal of Matter
Entropy and Dispersal of Energy
Direction of Heat Flow
12.3 Entropies of Pure Substances
Minimization of Entropy
Absolute Entropies
Focus 12-1 Chemistry and Technology: Seeking Absolute Zero
Entropy and Concentration
Standard Reaction Entropies
12.4 Spontaneity and Free Energy
Free Energy and Temperature
Free Energy and Concentration
Influencing Spontaneity
12.5 Some Applications of Thermodynamics
Nitrogen Fixation
Focus 12-2 Chemistry and Life: How Does Nitrogenase Work?
Phase Changes
Thermal Pollution
12.6 Bioenergetics
Biochemical Energy Production
Coupled Reactions
Energy Efficiency
Visual Summary
Chapter 13 Kinetics: Mechanisms and Rates of Reactions
Introduction: The Ozone Problem
13.1 What Is a Reaction Mechanism?
Example of a Mechanism: Formation of N2O4
Elementary Reactions
Alternative Mechanisms
Intermediates
The Rate-Determining Step
13.2 Rates of Chemical Reactions
A Molecular View
A Macroscopic View: Concentration Changes
13.3 Concentration and Reaction Rates
Concentration Effects
Rate Laws
Mechanisms and Rate Laws
Rate Constants
13.4 Experimental Kinetics
First-Order Reactions
Second-Order Reactions
Zeroth-Order Reactions
Isolation Experiments
Initial Rates
13.5 Linking Mechanisms and Rate Laws
Rate-Determining First Step
Rate-Determining Later Step
Equality of Rates
Focus 13-1 Chemistry and the Environment: Reactions of Ozone
13.6 Reaction Rates and Temperature
Energy Changes in a Unimolecular Reaction
Energy Changes During Bimolecular Reactions
Activation Energy
Activation Energy and the Rate Constant
The Arrhenius Equation
Values of Activation Energy
Kinetics of SN1 and SN2 Reactions
13.7 Catalysis
Catalysis and the Ozone Problem
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts
Catalysis in Industry
Biocatalysis: Enzymes
Focus 13-2 Chemical Milestones: The Work of Dr. John Polanyi
Visual Summary
Chapter 14 Principles of Chemical Equilibrium
Introduction: Agriculture and Nitrogen Fixation
14.1 Describing Chemical Equilibria
Dynamic Equilibrium
The Equilibrium Constant
Reversibility
14.2 Properties of Equilibrium Constants
Concentration Units and Activities
Pure Liquids, Pure Solids, and Solvents
Direction of a Reaction at Equilibrium
Magnitudes of Equilibrium Constants
14.3 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium
Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
Calculating Keq from ?G°
Equilibrium Constants and Temperature
Focus 14-1 Chemistry and Technology: Industrial Equilibria
14.4 Shifts in Equilibrium
Le Châtelier’s Principle
Changes in Amounts of Reagents
Effect of Catalysts
Effect of Temperature
14.5 Working with Equilibria
Chemistry of Equilibria
Initial Conditions and Concentration Tables
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
Working with Small Equilibrium Constants
Working with Large Equilibrium Constants
14.6 Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions
Species in Solution
Types of Aqueous Equilibria
Identifying Types of Equilibria
Spectator Ions
Focus 14-2 Chemistry and the Environment: Limestone Caverns
Visual Summary
Chapter 15 Aqueous Acid–Base Equilibria
Introduction: Acids and Taste
15.1 Proton Transfers in Water
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
Autohydrolysis of Water
Strong Acids
Strong Bases
15.2 The ph Scale
Features of the pH Scale
15.3 Weak Acids and Bases
Weak Acids: Proton Transfer to Water
Weak Bases: Proton Transfer from Water
Focus 15-1 Chemical Milestones: Arrhenius and the Ionic Theory
15.4 Recognizing Acids and Bases
Oxoacids
Carboxylic Acids
Other Acids
Weak Bases
Focus 15-2 Chemistry and Life: Drugs and the Brain
15.5 Acidic and Basic Salts
Salts of Weak Acids
Salts of Weak Bases
Summarizing Acids and Bases
15.6 Factors Affecting Acid Strength
Effect of Charge
Structural Factors
15.7 Multiple Equilibria
Polyprotic Acids
Salts of Polyprotic Acids
Visual Summary
Chapter 16 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria
Introduction: The pH of Blood
16.1 Buffer Solutions
The Composition of Buffer Solutions
Molecular View of a Buffer Solution
The Buffer Equation
Buffer Action
16.2 Capacity and Preparation of Buffer Solutions
Buffer Capacity
Buffer Preparation
16.3 Acid–Base Titrations
Titration of a Weak Acid by OH– Ions
Titration of a Weak Base with H3O+ Ions
Titration of Polyprotic Acids
Indicators
16.4 Solubility Equilibria
Precipitation Equilibria
The Common-Ion Effect
Effects of pH
Focus 16-1 Chemistry and the Environment: The Carbon Cycle
16.5 Complexation Equilibria
Stoichiometry of Complexes
Complexation Calculations
The Chelate Effect
Complex Formation and Solubility
Focus 16-2 Chemistry and Life: The pH of Soil
Visual Summary
Chapter 17 Electron Transfer Reactions
Introduction: Corrosion
17.1 Recognizing Redox Reactions
Oxidation Numbers
17.2 Balancing Redox Reactions
Half-Reactions
Balancing Half-Reactions
Balancing Redox Reactions
Focus 17-1 Chemistry and the Environment: Purifying Groundwater
17.3 Galvanic Cells
Direct and Indirect Electron Transfers
Ion Transport
Electrodes
Components of Galvanic Cells
Shorthand Cell Notations
17.4 Cell Potentials
Electrode Equilibrium
Standard Electrical Potential
Standard Cell Voltages
Conventions for Standard Reduction Potentials
17.5 Free Energy and Electrochemistry
Cell Potential and Free Energy
Cell Potentials and Chemical Equilibrium
The Nernst Equation
The pH Meter
Electrochemical Stoichiometry
17.6 Redox in Action
Batteries
Corrosion
Focus 17-2 Chemistry and Technology: Fuel Cells
17.7 Electrolysis
Electrolysis of Water
Competitive Electrolysis
Electroplating
Visual Summary
Chapter 18 Macromolecules
Introduction: Silk, a Natural Macromolecule
18.1 Starting Materials for Polymers
C=C Double Bonds
-OH and -SH
-NH2
The Carbonyl and Carboxyl Groups
Phosphates
Linkage Groups
18.2 Free Radical Polymerization
Synthesis of Polyethylene
Other Polyalkenes
Rubber
Focus 18-1 Chemical Milestones: The Natural Rubber Industry
Cross-Linking
18.3 Condensation Polymerization
Polyamides
Polyesters
18.4 Types of Polymers
Plastics
Fibres
Elastomers
Polymer Stability
18.5 Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
18.6 Nucleic Acids
The Building Blocks
The Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids
Secondary Structure of DNA: The Double Helix
Focus 18-2 Chemistry and Technology: Dna “Chips”
The Structure of RNA
18.7 Proteins
Amino Acids
Polypeptides
Secondary Protein Structure
Tertiary Protein Structure
Globular Proteins
Fibrous Proteins
Visual Summary
Chapter 19 The Transition Metals
Introduction: Metals Essential For Life
19.1 Overview of the Transition Metals
Physical Properties
Redox Behaviour
Transition Metal Compounds
19.2 Coordination Complexes
Nature of Ligands
Structures of Coordination Complexes
Isomers
Naming Coordination Compounds
Focus 19-1 Chemical Milestones: The Birth of Coordination Chemistry
19.3 Bonding in Coordination Complexes
Orbital Stability in Octahedral Complexes
Populating the d Orbitals
Magnetic Properties of Coordination Complexes
Contributions to Crystal Field Splitting Energy
Colour in Coordination Complexes
Square Planar and Tetrahedral Complexes
19.4 Transition Metals in Biology
Metalloproteins
Transport and Storage Proteins
Enzymes
Electron Transfer Proteins
19.5 Metallurgy
Overview of Metallurgical Processes
Iron and Steel
Other Metals
Focus 19-2 Chemistry in Canada: The Canadian Metal Mining Industry
19.6 Applications of Transition Metals
Titanium
Chromium
Copper, Silver, and Gold
Zinc and Mercury
The Platinum Metals
Visual Summary
Chapter 20 The Main Group Elements
Introduction: New Discoveries about an Old Compound
20.1 Lewis Acids and Bases
Formation of Lewis Acid–Base Adducts
Recognizing Lewis Acids and Bases
20.2 Hard and Soft Lewis Acids and Bases
Polarizability
The Hard–Soft Concept
The Hard–Soft Acid–Base Principle
Metathesis Reactions
20.3 The Main Group Metals
Production of Aluminum
Focus 20-1 Chemical Milestones: The Story of the Hall–Héroult Process
Uses of Aluminum
Tin and Lead
20.4 The Metalloids
Boron
Silicon
Silicones
Other Metalloids
20.5 Phosphorus
Elemental Phosphorus
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphorus Fertilizers
Phosphate Condensations
Organophosphorus Compounds
20.6 Other Non-Metals
Carbon
Sulphur
Chlorine
Other Halogens
Focus 20-2 Chemistry and the Environment: The Case Against the Industrial Use of Chlorine
Visual Summary
Chapter 21 Nuclear Chemistry and Radiochemistry
Introduction: The Nuclear Dilemma
21.1 Nuclear Stability
Nuclear Composition
Nuclear Binding Energy
Energy Barriers
Stable Nuclides
21.2 Nuclear Decay
Decay Processes
Rates of Nuclear Decay
21.3 Induced Nuclear Reactions
Neutron-Capture Reactions
Other Binuclear Reactions
Making Synthetic Elements
21.4 Nuclear Fission
Characteristics of Fission
Nuclear Reactors
Focus 21-1 Chemistry and the Environment: A Natural Nuclear Reactor?
21.5 Nuclear Fusion
The Threshold for Fusion
Controlled Fusion
Stellar Nuclear Reactions
First-Generation Stars
Second-Generation Stars
21.6 Effects of Radiation
Radiation Damage
Immediate Health Effects
Long-Term Effects
Radiation Shielding
21.7 Applications of Radioactivity
Dating Using Radioactivity
Radioactive Tracers
Focus 21-2 Chemistry and Life: Preserving Food with Radiation
Visual Summary
Appendix A: Scientific Notation
Appendix B: Quantitative Observations
Appendix C: Ionization Energies and Electron Affinities of the First 36 Elements
Appendix D: Standard Thermodynamic Functions
Appendix E: Equilibrium Constants
Appendix F: Standard Reduction Potentials, E°
Appendix G: Common Polyatomic Ions
Solutions to Odd-Numbered Problems
Glossary
Index
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Tags: John Olmsted, Gregory Williams, Robert Burk, Chemistry