Educational Research Quantitative Qualitative and Mixed Approaches 7th Edition by Burke Johnson, Larry Christensen ISBN 1544337821 9781544337821

Part I Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction to Educational Research

Why Study Educational Research?

Areas of Educational Research

Examples of Educational Research

General Kinds of Research

Basic and Applied Research

Evaluation Research

Action Research

Orientational Research

Sources of Knowledge

Experience

Reasoning

The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation

Dynamics of Science

Basic Assumptions of Science

Scientific Methods

Theory

The Principle of Evidence

Critical/Scientific Reasoning Versus Pseudoscience

Objectives of Educational Research

Dispositions of a Good Researcher

Overview of This Book

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Chapter 2 Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research

Characteristics of the Three Research Paradigms

Quantitative Research Methods: Experimental and Nonexperimental Research

Variables

Experimental Research

Nonexperimental Research

Qualitative Research Methods

Phenomenology

Ethnography

Narrative Inquiry

Case Study Research

Grounded Theory

Mixed Research (or Mixed Methods Research)

The Advantages of Mixed Research

Our Research Typology

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Chapter 3 Action Research for Lifelong Learning

Defining Action Research

Origins of Action Research

Basic Scientific Research Versus Action Research

Types of Action Research

The Cycle of Action Research

Strengths and Weaknesses of Action Research

Action Research Journaling

Action Research in the Remaining Chapters of This Book

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Note

Part II Planning the Research Study

Chapter 4 How to Critically Review the Literature and Develop Good Research Questions

Sources of Research Ideas

Everyday Life

Practical Issues

Past Research

Theory

Ideas That Can’t Be Resolved Through Empirical Research

Review of the Literature

Literature Review for Quantitative Research Studies

Literature Review for Qualitative Research Studies

Literature Review for Mixed Research Studies

Sources of Information

Feasibility of the Study

Statement of the Research Problem

Stating a Quantitative Research Problem

Stating a Qualitative Research Problem

Stating a Mixed Research Problem

Statement of the Purpose of the Study

Statement of Purpose in a Quantitative Study

Statement of Purpose in a Qualitative Study

Statement of Purpose in a Mixed Study

Statement of Research Questions

Statement of a Quantitative Research Question

Statement of a Qualitative Research Question

Statement of Research Questions in Mixed Research

Formulating Hypotheses

Consumer Use of the Literature

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Chapter 5 How to Write a Research Proposal

Framework of the Research Proposal

Strategies for Writing Each Section of the Research Proposal

Introduction

Method

Research Participants

Design

Apparatus and/or Instruments

Procedure

Data Analysis

Abstract

Strategies for Evaluating Your Research Proposal

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Proposal Exercise

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Chapter 6 Research Ethics

What Are Research Ethics?

Ethical Concerns

Relationship Between Society and Science

Professional Issues

Treatment of Research Participants

Ethical Guidelines for Research With Humans

Informed Consent and Minors as Research Participants

Passive Versus Active Consent

Additional Consent

Deception

Freedom to Withdraw

Protection From Mental and Physical Harm

Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy

Institutional Review Board

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

Informed Consent and Internet Research

Privacy and Internet Research

Debriefing and Internet Research

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

Authorship

Writing the Research Report

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Part III Foundations of Research

Chapter 7 Standardized Measurement and Assessment

Defining Measurement

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

Assumptions Underlying Testing and Assessment

Identifying a Good Test or Assessment Procedure

Overview of Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Test-Retest Reliability

Equivalent-Forms Reliability

Internal Consistency Reliability

Interscorer Reliability

Validity

Evidence Based on Content

Evidence Based on Internal Structure

Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables

Using Reliability and Validity Information in Your Research

Educational and Psychological Tests

Intelligence Tests

Personality Tests

Educational Assessment Tests

Sources of Information About Tests

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 8 Methods of Data Collection in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research

Mixing Methods of Data Collection

Tests

Technology and Tests

Questionnaires

Technology and Questionnaires

Interviews

Technology and Interviews

Quantitative Interviews

Qualitative Interviews

Focus Groups

Technology and Focus Groups

Observation

Quantitative Observation

Qualitative Observation

Visual Data

Constructed, Secondary, and Existing Data

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Chapter 9 How to Construct a Questionnaire

What Is a Questionnaire?

Principles of Questionnaire Construction

Principle 1. Make sure the questionnaire items match your research objectives.

Principle 2. Understand your research participants.

Principle 3. Use natural and familiar language.

Principle 4. Write items that are clear, precise, and relatively short.

Principle 5. Do not use “leading” or “loaded” questions.

Principle 6. Avoid double-barreled questions.

Principle 7. Avoid double negatives.

Principle 8. Determine whether an open-ended or a closed-ended question is needed.

Principle 9. Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories for closed-ended questions.

Principle 10. Consider the different types of response categories available for closed-ended questionnaire items.

Principle 11. Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs.

Principle 12. Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs.

Principle 13. Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of the items to prevent response sets in multi-item scales.

Principle 14. Develop a questionnaire that is properly organized and easy for the participant to use.

Principle 15. Always pilot test your questionnaire.

Putting It All Together

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercise

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 10 Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research

Terminology Used in Sampling

Random Sampling Techniques

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling

Cluster Random Sampling

Nonrandom Sampling Techniques

Convenience Sampling

Quota Sampling

Purposive Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Random Selection and Random Assignment

Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Sampling in Mixed Research

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 11 Validity of Research Results in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research

Validity Issues in the Design of Quantitative Research

Internal Validity (i.e., Causation Validity)

Two Major Types of Causal Relationships

The Three Required Conditions for Inferring Causation

Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Group Designs

Threats to Internal Validity in Multigroup Designs

External Validity (i.e., Generalizing Validity)

Population Validity

Ecological Validity

Temporal Validity

Treatment Variation Validity

Outcome Validity

Construct Validity

Treatment Diffusion

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Research Validity (or “Trustworthiness”) in Qualitative Research

Descriptive Validity

Interpretive or Emic Validity

Theoretical Validity

Internal (Causation) Validity

External (Generalizing) Validity

Research Validity (or “Legitimation”) in Mixed (Methods) Research

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Part IV Selecting a Research Method

Chapter 12 Experimental Research: Weak and Strong Designs

The Experiment

Experimental Research Settings

Field Experiment

Laboratory Experiment

Internet Experiment

Independent Variable Manipulation

Ways to Manipulate an Independent Variable

Control of Confounding Variables

Random Assignment

Matching

Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant

Building the Extraneous Variable Into the Research Design

Analysis of Covariance

Counterbalancing

Experimental Research Designs

Weak Experimental Research Designs

Strong Experimental Research Designs

Factorial Designs

Repeated-Measures Designs

Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 13 Experimental Research: Quasi and Single-Case Designs

Quasi-Experimental Research Designs

Nonequivalent Comparison-Group Design

Interrupted Time-Series Design

Regression-Discontinuity Design

Single-Case Experimental Designs

A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs

Multiple-Baseline Design

Changing-Criterion Design

Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Note

Chapter 14 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Steps in Nonexperimental Research

Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research

Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research

Techniques of Control in Nonexperimental Research (i.e., How to Design Strong Nonexperimental Research)

Matching

Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant

Statistical Control

Interlude (The Study of Causal Relationships in Epidemiology)

Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective

The Time Dimension in Nonexperimental Research DESIGN

Cross-Sectional Research

Longitudinal Research

Retrospective Research

The Research Objective Dimension in Nonexperimental Research DESIGN

Descriptive Nonexperimental Research

Predictive Nonexperimental Research

Explanatory Nonexperimental Research

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 15 Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research

Narrative Inquiry

I. Introduction: The Importance of Coming to Terms and Definitions

II. Designing a Narrative Study

III. Narrative Inquiry: So Much More Than Telling Stories

Case Study Research

What Is a Case?

Types of Case Study Research Designs

Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Narrative Inquiry Examples

Case Study Examples

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 16 Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory

Phenomenology

Examples of Phenomenology

Types of Phenomenology

Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing

Ethnography

The Idea of Culture

Examples of Ethnographic Research

Types of Ethnographic Research

Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing

Grounded Theory

Characteristics of a Grounded Theory

Example of a Grounded Theory

Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Chapter 17 Mixed Research

The Research Continuum

Types of Mixed Research Designs

Examples of Equal-Status Mixed Studies

Stages of the Mixed Research Process

Step 1. Determine Whether a Mixed Design Is Appropriate

Step 2. Determine the Rationale for Using a Mixed Design

Step 3. Select or Construct the Mixed Research Design and Mixed Sampling Design

Step 4. Collect Data

Step 5. Analyze the Data

Step 6. Continually Validate the Data

Step 7. Continually Interpret the Data and Findings

Step 8. Write the Research Report

Limitations of Mixed Research

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Part V Analyzing the Data

Chapter 18 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics

Frequency Distributions

Graphic Representations of Data

Bar Graphs

Histograms

Line Graphs

Scatter Plots (to Visualize a Correlation)

Measures of Central Tendency

Mode

Median

Mean

A Comparison of the Mean, Median, and Mode

Measures of Variability

Range

Variance and Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation and the Normal Distribution

Measures of Relative Standing

Percentile Ranks

z Scores

Examining Relationships Among Variables

Correlation Coefficient

Contingency Tables

Regression Analysis

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 19 Inferential Statistics

Sampling Distributions

Sampling Distribution of the Mean

Estimation

Point Estimation

Interval Estimation

Hypothesis Testing

Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Directional Alternative Hypotheses

Examining the Probability Value and Making a Decision

The Hypothesis-Testing Decision Matrix

Controlling the Risk of Errors

Hypothesis Testing in Practice

t Test for Independent Samples

One-Way Analysis of Variance

Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance

t Test for Correlation Coefficients

t Test for Regression Coefficients

Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables

Other Significance Tests

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 19 Appendix: Total Number of Participants Recommended for Different Statistical Tests

Chapter 20 Data Analysis in Qualitative and Mixed Research

Interim Analysis

Memoing

Analysis of Visual Data

Data Entry and Storage

Segmenting, Coding, and Developing Category Systems

Inductive and A Priori Codes

Co-Occurring and Facesheet Codes

First-Stage and Second-Stage Coding

Enumeration

Thematic Analysis and Creating Hierarchical Category Systems

Identifying Relationships Among Categories

Drawing Diagrams

Corroborating and Validating Results

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data Analysis

Data Analysis in Mixed Research

Mixed Analysis Matrix

Analytical Procedures in Mixed Data Analysis

Constructing Joint Displays in Mixed Data Analysis

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Notes

Chapter 20 Appendix: Additional Types of Codes for Qualitative Research

Part VI Writing the Research Report

Chapter 21 How to Prepare a Research Report and Use APA Style Guidelines

General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report (I)

Language (I.1)

Editorial Style (I.2)

Reference List (I.3)

Typing (I.4)

Writing an APA-Style Quantitative Research Report (II)

Title Page (II.1)

Abstract (II.2)

Introduction (II.3)

Method (II.4)

Results (II.5)

Discussion (II.6)

References (II.7)

Footnotes (II.8)

Tables (II.9)

Figures (II.10)

Example of an APA-Style Manuscript

Writing Qualitative Research Reports

Writing Mixed Research Reports

Action Research Reflection

Summary

Key Term

Discussion Questions

Research Exercises

Proposal Exercises

Relevant Internet Sites

Recommended Reading

Appendix: Citations for Journal Articles Noted in the Margins

Glossary

References

Author Index

Subject Index

About the Authors