Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices 2nd Edition by Betty Lise Anderson, Richard Anderson ISBN 0073529567 978-0073529561

Part 1 Materials

Chapter 1 Electron Energy and States in Semiconductors

1.1 Introduction and Preview

1.2 A Brief History

1.3 Application to the Hydrogen Atom

1.3.1 The Bohr Model for The Hydrogen Atom

1.3.2 Application to Molecules: Covalent Bonding

1.3.3 Quantum Numbers and the Pauli Exclusion Principle

1.3.4 Covalent Bonding in Crystalline Solids

1.4 Wave-Particle Duality

1.5 The Wave Function

1.5.1 Probability and the Wave Function

1.6 The Electron Wave Function

1.6.1 The Free Electron in One Dimension

1.6.2 The De Broglie Relationship

1.6.3 The Free Electron in Three Dimensions

1.6.4 The Quasi-Free Electron Model

1.6.5 Reflection and Tunneling

1.7 A First Look at Optical Emission and Absorption

1.8 Crystal Structures, Planes, and Directions

1.9 Summary

1.10 References

1.11 Review Questions

1.12 Problems

Chapter 2 Homogeneous Semiconductors

2.1 Introduction and Preview

2.2 Pseudo-Classical Mechanics for Electrons in Crystals

2.2.1 One-Dimensional Crystals

2.2.2 Three-Dimensional Crystals

2.3 Conduction Band Structure

2.4 Valence Band Structure

2.5 Intrinsic Semiconductors

2.6 Extrinsic Semiconductors

2.6.1 Donors

2.6.2 Acceptors

2.7 The Concept of Holes

2.7.1 Hole Charge

2.8 Effective Mass of Electrons and Holes

2.9 Density-of-States Functions for Electrons in Bands

2.9.1 Density of States and Density-of-States Effective Mass

2.10 Fermi-Dirac Statistics

2.10.1 Fermi-Dirac Statistics for Electrons and Holes in Bands

2.11 Electron and Hole Distributions with Energy

2.12 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations in Nondegenerate Semiconductors

2.12.1 Carrier Concentrations at High Temperatures

2.12.2 Carrier Concentrations at Low Temperatures (Carrier Freeze-Out)

2.13 Degenerate Semiconductors

2.13.1 Impurity-Induced Band-Gap Narrowing

2.13.2 Apparent Band-Gap Narrowing

2.14 Summary

2.14.1 Nondegenerate Semiconductors

2.14.2 Degenerate Semiconductors

2.15 References

2.16 Review Questions

2.17 Problems

Chapter 3 Current Flow in Homogeneous Semiconductors

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Drift Current

3.3 Carrier Mobility

3.3.1 Carrier Scattering

3.3.2 Scattering Mobility

3.3.3 Impurity Band Mobility

3.3.4 Temperature Dependence of Mobility

3.3.5 High-Field Effects

3.4 Diffusion Current

3.5 Carrier Generation and Recombination

3.5.1 Band-to-Band Generation and Recombination

3.5.2 Two-Step Processes

3.6 Optical Processes in Semiconductors

3.6.1 Absorption

3.6.2 Emission

3.7 Continuity Equations

3.8 Minority Carrier Lifetime

3.8.1 Rise Time

3.8.2 Fall Time

3.9 Minority Carrier Diffusion Lengths

3.10 Quasi Fermi Levels

3.11 Summary

3.12 References

3.13 Review Questions

3.14 Problems

Chapter 4 Nonhomogeneous Semiconductors

4.1 Constancy of The Fermi Level at Equilibrium

4.2 Graded Doping

4.3 Nonuniform Composition

4.4 Graded Doping and Graded Composition Combined

4.5 Summary

4.6 References

4.7 Review Questions

4.8 Problems

Supplement to Part 1 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

S1.1 Introduction

S1.2 The Wave Function

S1.3 Probability and the Wave Function

S1.3.1 Particle in a One-Dimensional Potential Well

S1.4 Schrödinger’s Equation

S1.5 Applying Schrödinger’s Equation to Electrons

S1.6 Some Results From Quantum Mechanics

S1.6.1 The Free Electron

S1.6.2 The Quasi-Free Electron

S1.6.3 The Potential Energy Well

S1.6.4 The Infinite Potential Well in One Dimension

S1.6.5 Reflection and Transmission at a Finite Potential Barrier

S1.6.6 Tunneling

S1.6.7 The Finite Potential Well

S1.6.8 The Hydrogen Atom Revisited

S1.6.9 The Uncertainty Principle

S1.7 Phonons

S1.7.1 Carrier Scattering by Phonons

S1.7.2 Indirect Electron Transitions

S1.8 Summary

S1.9 References

S1.10 Review Questions

S1.11 Problems

Part 2 Diodes

Chapter 5 Prototype pn Homojunctions

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Prototype pn Junctions (Qualitative)

5.2.1 Energy Band Diagrams of Prototype pn Junctions

5.2.2 Description of Current Flow in a pn Prototype Homojunction

5.2.3 Tunnel Diodes

5.3 Prototype pn Homojunctions (Quantitative)

5.3.1 Energy Band Diagram at Equilibrium (Step Junction)

5.3.2 Energy Band Diagram with Applied Voltage

5.3.3 Current-Voltage Characteristics of pn Homojunctions

5.3.4 Reverse-Bias Breakdown

5.4 Small-Signal Impedance of Prototype Homojunctions

5.4.1 Junction (Differential) Resistance

5.4.2 Junction (Differential) Capacitance

5.4.3 Stored-Charge Capacitance

5.5 Transient Effects

5.5.1 Turn-Off Transient

5.5.2 Turn-On Transient

5.6 Effects of Temperature

5.7 Summary

5.8 Review Questions

5.9 Problems

Chapter 6 Additional Considerations for Diodes

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Nonstep Homojunctions

6.2.1 Linearly Graded Junctions

6.2.2 Hyperabrupt Junctions

6.3 Semiconductor Heterojunctions

6.3.1 The Energy Band Diagrams of Semiconductor–Semiconductor Heterojunctions

6.3.2 Tunneling-Induced Dipoles

6.3.3 Effects of Interface States

6.3.4 Effects of Lattice Mismatch on Heterojunctions

6.4 Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

6.4.1 Ideal Metal-Semiconductor Junctions (Electron Affinity Model)

6.4.2 Influence of Interface-Induced Dipoles

6.4.3 The Current-Voltage Characteristics of Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

6.4.4 Ohmic (Low-Resistance) Contacts

6.4.5 I-Va Characteristics of Heterojunction Diodes

6.5 Capacitance in Nonideal Junctions and Heterojunctions

6.6 Summary

6.7 References

6.8 Review Questions

6.9 Problems

Supplement to Part 2 Diodes

S2.1 Introduction

S2.2 Dielectric Relaxation Time

S2.2.1 Case 1: Dielectric Relaxation Time for Majority Carriers

S2.2.2 Case 2: Dielectric Relaxation Time for Minority Carriers

S2.3 Junction Capacitance

S2.3.1 Junction Capacitance in a Prototype (Step) Junction

S2.3.2 Junction Capacitance in a Nonuniformly Doped Junction

S2.3.3 Varactors

S2.3.4 Stored-Charge Capacitance of Short-Base Diodes

S2.4 Second-Order Effects in Schottky Diodes

S2.4.1 Tunneling Through Schottky Barriers

S2.4.2 Barrier Lowering in Schottky Diodes Due to The Image Effect

S2.5 Summary

S2.6 Review Questions

S2.7 References

S2.8 Problems

Part 3 Field-Effect Transistors

The Generic FET

Transistors in Circuits

The Basis for Deriving the ID  -VDS Characteristics of a FET

Chapter 7 The MOSFET

7.1 Introduction

7.2 MOSFETs (Qualitative)

7.2.1 Introduction to MOS Capacitors

7.2.2 MOS Capacitor Hybrid Diagrams

7.2.3 MOSFETs at Equilibrium (Qualitative)

7.2.4 MOSFETs Not at Equilibrium (Qualitative)

7.3 Drift Model for MOSFETs (Quantitative)

7.3.1 Long-Channel Drift MOSFET Model with Constant Channel Mobility

7.3.2 More Realistic Long-Channel Models: Effect of Fields on the Mobility

7.3.3 Series Resistance

7.4 Comparison of Models with Experiment

7.5 Ballistic Model for MOSFETs

7.6 Some Short-Channel Effects

7.6.1 Dependence of Effective Channel Length on VDS

7.6.2 Dependence of Threshold Voltage on the Drain Voltage

7.7 Subthreshold Leakage Current

7.8 Summary

7.9 References

7.10 Review Questions

7.11 Problems

Chapter 8 Other Field-Effect Transistors

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Measurement of Threshold Voltage and Low-Field Mobility

8.3 Complementary MOSFETs (CMOS)

8.3.1 Operation of The CMOS Inverter

8.3.2 Matching of CMOS Devices

8.4 Switching in CMOS Inverter Circuits

8.4.1 Effect of Load Capacitance

8.4.2 Propagation (Gate) Delay in CMOS Switching Circuits

8.4.3 Pass-Through Current in CMOS Switching

8.5 Other MOSFETs

8.5.1 Silicon on Insulator (SOI) MOSFETs

8.5.2 FinFETs

8.5.3 Nonvolatile MOSFETs

8.6 Other FETS

8.6.1 Heterojunction Field-Effect Transistors (HFETs)

8.6.2 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MESFETs)

8.6.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs)

8.6.4 Tunnel Field-Effect Transistors (TFETs)

8.7 Bulk Channel FETs: Quantitative

8.8 Summary

8.9 References

8.10 Review Questions

8.11 Problems

Supplement to Part 3 Additional Consideration for MOSFETs

S3.1 Introduction

S3.2 Dependence of the Channel Charge Qch on the Longitudinal Field ℰL

S3.3 Threshold Voltage for MOSFETs

S3.3.1 Fixed Charge

S3.3.2 Interface Trapped Charge

S3.3.3 Bulk Charge

S3.3.4 Effect of Charges on the Threshold Voltage

S3.3.5 Flat Band Voltage

S3.3.6 Threshold Voltage Control

S3.3.7 Channel Quantum Effects

S3.4 MOSFET Analog Equivalent Circuit

S3.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit

S3.4.2 CMOS Amplifiers

S3.5 Unity Current Gain Cutoff Frequency fT

S3.6 MOS Capacitors

S3.6.1 Ideal MOS Capacitance

S3.6.2 The C-VG Characteristics of Real MOS Capacitors

S3.6.3 MOSFET Parameter Analyses from C-VG Measurements

S3.7 Dynamic Random-Access Memories (DRAMs)

S3.8 MOSFET Scaling [6]

S3.9 Device and Interconnect Degradation

S3.9.1 MOSFET Integrated Circuit Reliability

S3.10 Summary

S3.11 References

S3.12 Review Questions

S3.13 Problems

Part 4 Bipolar Junction Transistors

Chapter 9 Bipolar Junction Transistors: Statics

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Output Characteristics (Qualitative)

9.3 Current Gain

9.4 Model of a Prototype BJT

9.4.1 Collection Efficiency M

9.4.2 Injection Efficiency γ

9.4.3 Base Transport Efficiency αT

9.5 Doping Gradients in BJTs

9.5.1 The Graded-Base Transistor

9.5.2 Effect of Base Field on β

9.6 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBTs)

9.6.1 Uniformly Doped HBT

9.6.2 Graded-Composition HBT: (Si: SiGe-Base: Si HBTs)

9.6.3 Double Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor, (DHBT)

9.7 Comparison of Si-Base, SiGe-Base, and GaAs-Base HBTs

9.8 The Basic Ebers-Moll dc Model

9.9 Summary

9.10 References

9.11 Review Questions

9.12 Problems

Chapter 10 Time-Dependent Analysis of BJTS

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Ebers-Moll ac Model

10.3 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

10.3.1 Hybrid-Pi Models

10.4 Stored-Charge Capacitance in BJTs

10.5 Frequency Response

10.5.1 Unity Current Gain Frequency fT

10.5.2 Base Transit Time tT

10.5.3 Base-Collector Transit Time tBC

10.5.4 Maximum Oscillation Frequency fmax

10.6 High-Frequency Transistors

10.6.1 Double Poly Si Self-Aligned Transistor

10.7 BJT Switching Transistor

10.7.1 Output Low-To-High Transition Time

10.7.2 Schottky-Clamped Transistor

10.7.3 Double Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor (DHBT)

10.8 BJTs, MOSFETs, and BiMOS

10.8.1  Comparison of BJTs and MOSFETs

10.8.2 BiMOS

10.9 Summary

10.10 References

10.11 Review Questions

10.12 Problems

Supplement to Part 4 Bipolar Devices

S4.1 Introduction

S4.2 Current Crowding and Base Resistance in BJTs

S4.3 Base Width Modulation (Early Effect)

S4.4 Avalanche Breakdown

S4.5 High Injection

S4.6 Base Push-Out (Kirk) Effect

S4.7 Recombination in the Emitter-Base Junction

S4.8 Offset Voltage in BJTs

S4.9 Lateral Bipolar Transistors

S4.10 Summary

S4.11 References

S4.12 Review Questions

S4.13 Problems

Part 5 Optoelectronic and Power Semiconductor Devices

Chapter 11 Optoelectronic Devices

11.1 Introduction and Preview

11.2 Photodetectors

11.2.1 Generic Photodetector

11.2.2 Solar Cells

11.2.3 The pin (PIN) Photodetector

11.2.4 Avalanche Photodiodes

11.3 Light-Emitting Diodes

11.3.1 Spontaneous Emission in a Forward-Biased Junction

11.3.2 Blue, Utraviolet, and White LEDs

11.3.3 Infrared LEDs

11.3.4 White LEDs and Solid-State Lighting

11.4 Laser Diodes

11.4.1 Optical Gain

11.4.2 Feedback

11.4.3 Gain + Feedback = Laser

11.4.4 Laser Structures

11.4.5 Other Semiconductor Laser Materials

11.5 Image Sensors (Imagers)

11.5.1 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)

11.5.2 Linear Image Sensors

11.5.3 Area Image Sensors

11.6 Summary

11.7 References

11.8 Review Questions

11.9 Problems

Chapter 12 Power Semiconductor Devices

12.1 Introduction and Preview

12.2 Rectifying Diodes

12.2.1 Junction Breakdown

12.2.2 Specific On-Resistance

12.2.3 Transient Losses

12.2.4 Merged Pin-Schottky (MPS) Diodes

12.3 Thyristors (npnp Switching Devices)

12.3.1 The Four-Layer Diode Switch

12.3.2 Two-Transistor Model of an npnp Switch

12.3.3 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)

12.3.4 TRIAC

12.3.5 Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTOs)

12.4 The Power MOSFET

12.5 The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor

12.6 Power MOSFET versus IGBT

12.7 Summary

12.8 References

12.9 Review Questions

12.10 Problems

Appendices

Appendix A Constants

Appendix B List of Symbols

Appendix C Fabrication

C.1 Introduction

C.2 Substrate Preparation

C.2.1 The Raw Material

C.2.2 Crystal Growth

C.2.3 Defects

C.2.4 Epitaxy

C.3 Doping

C.3.1 Diffusion

C.3.2 Ion Implantation

C.4 Lithography

C.5 Conductors and Insulators

C.5.1 Metallization

C.5.2 Poly Si

C.5.3 Oxidation

C.5.4 Silicon Nitride

C.6 Silicon Oxynitride (SiOXNY or SiON)

C.7 Clean Rooms

C.8 Packaging

C.8.1 Wire Bonding

C.8.2 Lead Frame

C.8.3 Surface-Mount Packages

C.9 Summary

Appendix D Some Useful Integrals

Appendix E Useful Equations

General Physics

Semiconductor Materials

Junctions

Field-Effect Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Optoelectronic Devices

Power Semiconductor Devices

Index