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ISBN 10: 1482236109
ISBN 13: 978-1482236101
Author: Rajpal Sirohi
Introduction to Optical Metrology examines the theory and practice of various measurement methodologies utilizing the wave nature of light. The book begins by introducing the subject of optics, and then addresses the propagation of laser beams through free space and optical systems. After explaining how a Gaussian beam propagates, how to set up a collimator to get a collimated beam for experimentation, and how to detect and record optical signals, the text:
- Discusses interferometry, speckle metrology, moiré phenomenon, photoelasticity, and microscopy
- Describes the different principles used to measure the refractive indices of solids, liquids, and gases
- Presents methods for measuring curvature, focal length, angle, thickness, velocity, pressure, and length
- Details techniques for optical testing as well as for making fiber optic- and MEMS-based measurements
- Depicts a wave propagating in the positive z-direction by ei(ωt – kz), as opposed to ei(kz – ωt)
Featuring exercise problems at the end of each chapter, Introduction to Optical Metrology provides an applied understanding of essential optical measurement concepts, techniques, and procedures.
Introduction to Optical Metrology 1st Table of contents:
Chapter 1 Introduction to Optics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Law of Reflection
1.3 Law of Refraction
1.4 Interference
1.5 Diffraction
1.5.1 Propagation of a Monochromatic Wave
1.5.2 Kirchhoff Theory of Diffraction
1.5.3 Small Angle Approximation
1.5.4 Fresnel Approximation
1.5.5 Fraunhofer Approximation
1.6 Polarization
1.6.1 Polarization Ellipse
1.6.2 Representation of Polarization
1.6.2.1 Jones Vector
1.6.2.2 Stokes Vector
1.7 Fresnel Equations
1.8 Thin Film Optics
1.9 Optical Components
1.9.1 Reflective Components
1.9.1.1 Mirror
1.9.2 Refractive Components
1.9.2.1 Refraction at Dielectric Interface
1.9.3 Diffractive Components
1.10 Refraction at Curved Interface
1.10.1 Lenses
1.11 Paraxial Optics
1.11.1 Translation Matrix
1.11.2 Refraction Matrix
1.11.2.1 Plane Dielectric Interface
1.11.2.2 Spherical Dielectric Interface
1.11.3 Matrix for a Thin Lens
Problems
Chapter 2 Laser Beams
2.1 Gaussian Beams
2.2 The ABCD Law for Gaussian Beams
2.2.1 Free Space Propagation
2.2.2 Propagation through a Lens
2.2.2.1 Beam Waist Lies at Plane 1 at the Lens
2.2.2.2 Beam Waist Lies in Front of the Lens
2.2.2.3 Beam Focusing
2.3 Laser Collimator
2.4 Vortex Beams
2.5 Bessel Beams
Problems
Chapter 3 Sources, Detectors, and Recording Media
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Radiometric Units
3.3 Blackbody
3.4 Light Sources
3.4.1 Incandescent Tungsten Lamps
3.4.2 Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
3.4.3 Discharge Lamps
3.4.4 Coherent Sources
3.4.4.1 Helium-Neon Laser
3.4.4.2 Argon Ion Laser
3.4.4.3 Nd:YAG/Nd:Glass Laser
3.4.4.4 Semiconductor Lasers
3.5 Detectors
3.5.1 Eye
3.5.2 Photoelectric Detectors
3.5.2.1 Photoemissive Detectors
3.5.2.2 Photomultipliers
3.5.2.3 Photoconductive Detectors
3.5.2.4 Photovoltaic Detectors
3.5.2.5 Avalanche Photodiode
3.5.3 Thermal Detectors
3.6 Recording Media
3.6.1 Photographic/Holographic Plates and Films
3.6.2 Dichromated Gelatin
3.6.3 Photoresists
3.6.4 Photopolymers
3.6.5 Thermoplastics
3.6.6 Photochromics
3.6.7 Ferroelectric Crystals
3.7 Image Detectors
3.7.1 Time Delay and Integration Mode of Operation
3.8 Spatial Light Modulators
Problems
Chapter 4 Interferometry
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Early History
4.2.1 Arrival of Laser
4.3 Generation of Coherent Waves/Sources
4.3.1 Wave Front Division: Double-Slit Experiment
4.3.2 Amplitude Division: Plane Parallel Plate
4.4 Fringe Patterns
4.4.1 Interference between Two Plane Waves
4.4.2 Interference between Two Plane Waves of Slightly Different Frequencies
4.5 Some More Interferometers
4.5.1 Two-Frequency Interferometer
4.5.2 Doppler Interferometer
4.5.3 Cyclic Interferometer
4.5.4 Shear Interferometer
4.6 Phase Shifting
4.6.1 Temporal Phase Shifting
4.6.2 Spatial Phase Shifting
Problems
Chapter 5 Techniques
5.1 Holography and Hologram Interferometry
5.1.1 Hologram Recording
5.1.2 Reconstruction
5.1.3 In-Line Holography
5.1.4 Off-Axis Holography
5.1.4.1 Choice of Angle of the Reference Wave
5.1.4.2 Choice of Intensity of the Reference Wave
5.1.5 Types of Holograms
5.1.5.1 Diffraction Efficiency
5.1.6 Experimental Arrangement
5.1.6.1 Lasers
5.1.6.2 Beam Splitters
5.1.6.3 Beam Expanders
5.1.6.4 Object Illumination Beam
5.1.6.5 Reference Beam
5.1.6.6 Angle between Object and Reference Beams
5.1.7 Holographic Recording Materials
5.1.8 Holographic Interferometry
5.1.8.1 Real-Time HI
5.1.8.2 Double-Exposure HI
5.1.8.3 Time-Average HI
5.1.8.4 Real-Time, Time-Average HI
5.1.8.5 Stroboscopic Illumination/ Stroboscopic HI
5.1.9 Special Techniques in Holographic Interferometry
5.1.9.1 Two-Reference Beam HI
5.1.9.2 Sandwich HI
5.1.9.3 Reflection HI
5.1.9.4 Heterodyne HI
5.1.10 Holographic Contouring/Shape Measurement
5.1.10.1 Dual-Wavelength Method
5.1.10.2 Dual-Refractive Index Method
5.1.10.3 Dual-Illumination Method
5.1.11 Digital Holography
5.1.11.1 Recording of Digital Holograms
5.1.11.2 Reconstruction of Digital Holograms
5.1.12 Digital Holographic Interferometry
5.1.13 Fringe Formation and Measurement of Displacement Vector
5.1.14 Loading of the Object
5.2 Speckle Phenomenon, Speckle Photography, and Speckle Interferometry
5.2.1 Speckle Phenomenon
5.2.2 Average Speckle Size
5.2.2.1 Objective Speckle Pattern
5.2.2.2 Subjective Speckle Pattern
5.2.3 Relation between Object Displacement and Speckle Shift
5.2.3.1 In-Plane Displacement
5.2.3.2 Out-of-Plane Displacement
5.2.3.3 Tilt of the Object
5.2.4 Speckle Photography
5.2.5 Methods of Evaluation
5.2.5.1 Point-Wise Filtering Method
5.2.5.2 Whole-Field Filtering
5.2.5.3 Fourier Filtering Method: Measurement of Out-of-Plane Displacement
5.2.6 Speckle Photography with Vibrating Objects: In-Plane Vibration
5.2.7 Sensitivity of Speckle Photography
5.2.8 Particle Image Velocimetry
5.2.9 White Light Speckle Photography
5.2.10 Shear Speckle Photography
5.2.11 Speckle Interferometry
5.2.12 Correlation Coefficient in Speckle Interferometry
5.2.13 Out-of-Plane Speckle Interferometer
5.2.14 In-Plane Measurement: Duffy’s Method
5.2.14.1 Filtering
5.2.14.2 Fringe Formation
5.2.14.3 Duffy’s Arrangement: Enhanced Sensitivity
5.2.15 Speckle Shear Interferometry
5.2.15.1 Meaning of Shear
5.2.15.2 Methods of Shearing
5.2.15.3 Theory of Speckle Shear Interferometry
5.2.15.4 Fringe Formation
5.2.15.5 Shear Interferometry without the Influence of In-Plane Component
5.2.16 Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
5.2.16.1 Out-of-Plane Displacement Measurement
5.2.16.2 In-Plane Displacement Measurement
5.2.16.3 Vibration Analysis
5.2.16.4 Measurement on Small Objects
5.2.17 Shear ESPI Measurement
5.2.18 Contouring in ESPI—Shape Measurement
5.2.18.1 Change of Direction of Illumination
5.2.18.2 Change of Wavelength
5.2.18.3 Change of Medium Surrounding the Object
5.2.18.4 Tilt of the Object
5.3 Moiré Phenomena
5.3.1 Formation of Moiré Pattern
5.3.1.1 Moiré Fringe Pattern between Two Linear Gratings
5.3.2 Moiré between Reference and Deformed Gratings
5.3.2.1 Reference and Deformed Gratings Oriented along Y-Axis
5.3.2.2 Reference Grating Inclined
5.3.2.3 Gratings with Different Periods
5.3.3 Derivative of Distortion Function
5.3.4 Moiré Pattern with Deformed Sinusoidal Grating
5.3.4.1 Multiplicative Moiré Pattern
5.3.4.2 Additive Moiré Pattern
5.3.5 Talbot Phenomenon
5.3.5.1 Talbot Effect in Collimated Illumination
5.3.5.2 Cut-Off Distance
5.3.5.3 Talbot Effect in Noncollimated Illumination
5.4 Photoelasticity
5.4.1 Superposition of Two Plane Polarized Waves
5.4.1.1 Linear Polarization
5.4.1.2 Circular Polarization
5.4.2 Production of Polarized Light
5.4.2.1 Reflection
5.4.2.2 Refraction
5.4.2.3 Double Refraction
5.4.3 Optical Elements from Crystals
5.4.3.1 Polarizers
5.4.3.2 Phase Plates
5.4.4 Dichroism
5.4.5 Scattering
5.4.6 Malus Law
5.4.7 Stress-Optic Law
5.4.8 Strain-Optic Law
5.4.9 Methods of Analysis
5.4.9.1 Plane Polariscope
5.4.9.2 Circular Polariscope
5.4.9.3 Evaluation Procedure
5.4.10 Measurement of Fractional Fringe Order
5.4.10.1 Tardy’s Method
5.4.11 Phase Shifting
5.4.11.1 Isoclinics Computation
5.4.11.2 Computation of Isochromatics
5.4.12 Birefringent Coating Method—Reflection Polariscope
5.4.13 Holophotoelasticity
5.4.13.1 Single-Exposure Holophotoelasticity
5.4.13.2 Double-Exposure Holophotoelasticity
5.4.14 Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity
5.4.14.1 Frozen Stress Method
5.4.14.2 Scattered Light Photoelasticity
5.5 Microscopy
5.5.1 Simple Magnifier
5.5.2 Compound Microscope
5.5.3 Köhler Illumination
5.5.4 Empty Magnification
5.5.5 Depth of Field
5.5.6 Depth of Focus
5.5.7 Contrast-Enhancing Techniques
5.5.7.1 Dark Field Microscopy
5.5.7.2 Rheinburg Illumination
5.5.7.3 Phase Contrast Microscopy
5.5.7.4 Interference Microscopy
5.5.7.5 Polarization Microscopy
5.5.7.6 Hoffman Modulation Contrast
5.5.7.7 Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
5.5.8 Metrological Microscope
5.5.9 Confocal Scanning Optical Microscope
Problems
Chapter 6 Measurement of Refractive Index
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Spectrometer
6.3 Goniometer
6.3.1 Measurement of Refractive Index of a Liquid
6.3.2 Hilger–Chance Refractometer
6.4 Methods Based on the Measurement of Critical Angle
6.4.1 Pulfrich Refractometer
6.4.2 Abbe Refractometer
6.5 Measurement of Brewster Angle
6.6 Ellipsometry
6.6.1 Null Ellipsometry
6.6.2 Photometric Ellipsometry
6.6.3 Optical Constants of a Sample
6.6.4 Optical Constant of a Thin Film
6.7 Spectral Transmission Measurement
6.7.1 Refractive Index of the Substrate
6.8 Interferometry
Problems
Chapter 7 Measurement of Radius of Curvature and Focal Length
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Measurement of Radius of Curvature
7.2.1 Indirect Method: Measurement of the Sagitta
7.2.1.1 Mechanical Spherometer
7.2.2 Direct Methods
7.2.2.1 Image Formation
7.2.2.2 Differences in Conjugate Positions
7.2.2.3 Optical Spherometer
7.2.2.4 Measurement of Long Radius of Curvature
7.2.2.5 Cavity Method—Measurement of Long Radius of Curvature of a Concave Surface
7.2.2.6 Measurement of Very Long Radii of Curvature
7.2.2.7 Radius of Curvature with a Test Plate
7.2.2.8 Newton’s Rings Method
7.3 Scanning Profilometry
7.4 Radius of Curvature Measurement by Talbot Interferometry
7.5 Measurement of Focal Length
7.5.1 Focal Length of a Thin Lens
7.5.1.1 Focal Length by Imaging
7.5.1.2 Y’/tan θ’ Method
7.5.1.3 Magnification Method
7.5.1.4 Focal Length of a Negative/Diverging Lens
7.5.1.5 Nodal Slide Method
7.5.1.6 Focal Length Measurement from the Difference between Conjugate Positions
7.6 Moiré Deflectometry
Problems
Chapter 8 Optical Testing
8.1 Testing of a Flat Surface
8.1.1 Liquid Surface as a Reference
8.1.2 Calibration by Three-Flat Method
8.2 Testing of Spherical Surfaces
8.2.1 Scatter-Plate Interferometer
8.2.2 Point Diffraction Interferometer
8.2.3 Laser Unequal Path Interferometer
8.2.4 Fizeau Interferometer
8.2.5 Shack Cube Interferometer
8.3 Testing of Aspherical Surfaces
8.3.1 Null Test with a Computer-Generated Hologram
8.4 Oblique Incidence Interferometer
8.5 Shear Interferometry
8.6 Long Wavelength Interferometry
Problems
Chapter 9 Angle Measurement
9.1 Definition of an Angle
9.2 Autocollimator
9.2.1 Measurement of Angle of a Glass Wedge
9.2.2 Angle of a Prism
9.2.3 Measurement of Error in 90° Angle of a Right-Angle Prism
9.2.4 Measurement of Error in 45° Angle of a Right-Angle Prism
9.2.5 Testing of a Pentaprism
9.3 Goniometer
9.3.1 Measurement of Absolute Angle
9.4 Interferometry
9.4.1 Angle of a Wedge Plate
9.4.2 Angle between the Surfaces of an Opaque Plate or a Long Cylinder/Bar
9.4.3 Interferometric Testing of Prisms
9.4.3.1 Testing of a Right-Angle Prism
Problems
Chapter 10 Thickness Measurement
10.1 Triangulation-Based Probe
10.2 Spectral Reflectometry
10.3 Ellipsometry
10.4 Interferometry
10.4.1 Fringes of Equal Chromatic Order
10.4.2 Fizeau Fringes
10.4.3 Michelson Interferometer
10.4.4 Haidinger Fringes
10.5 Low Coherence Interferometry
10.6 Confocal Microscopy
10.7 Light Section Microscopy
Problems
Chapter 11 Measurement of Velocity
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Scattering from a Moving Particle-Doppler Shift
11.2.1 Reference Beam Mode
11.2.2 Fringe Mode
11.3 Scatter Light Beams Anemometry
11.4 Multichannel LDA Systems
11.5 Signal Processing
11.6 Particle Image Velocimetry
11.7 Measurement of Very High Velocity
Problems
Chapter 12 Pressure Measurement
12.1 Pressure Sensitive Paint
12.2 Measurement of Pressure with Photoelastic Material
12.3 Ruby Pressure Standard
12.4 Fabry–Perot Etalon as Pressure Sensor
12.4.1 FP Etalon with Flexible Mirrors
12.4.2 Change of Refractive Index
Problems
Chapter 13 Fiber Optic- and MEM-Based Measurements
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Intensity Modulation
13.2.1 Displacement Measurement: Lateral Shift between the Fibers
13.2.2 Displacement Sensor: Beam Attenuation
13.2.3 Proximity Probe
13.2.4 Microbend Displacement or Pressure Sensor
13.2.5 Measurement of the Refractive Index of Liquids: Fiber Optic Refractometer
13.3 Phase Modulation
13.3.1 Interferometric Sensors
13.3.1.1 Temperature Measurement
13.3.1.2 Fiber Optic Pressure Sensor
13.3.1.3 Fiber Optic Strain Sensor
13.3.1.4 Fiber Optic Accelerometers
13.3.1.5 Fiber Optic Gyroscope or Rotation Rate Sensors
13.3.1.6 Fiber Optic Fabry–Perot Interferometer
13.4 Pressure Sensor: Membrane Type
13.4.1 Pressure Sensor: Capillary Tip
13.5 Bragg Grating Sensors
13.6 Polarization Maintaining Single-Mode Fibers
13.6.1 Current Measurement: Faraday Rotation
13.7 Fiber Optic Biosensors
13.7.1 Direct Fiber Optic Sensors
13.7.1.1 Direct Physical Sensors
13.7.1.2 Direct Chemical Sensors
13.7.2 Indirect Fiber Optic Sensors
13.7.2.1 Indirect Physical Sensors
13.7.2.2 Indirect Chemical Sensors
Problems
Chapter 14 Length Measurement
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Measurement of Gauge Blocks and Slip Gauges
14.2.1 Method of Exact Fractions
14.3 Gauge Block Interferometry: Comparison with a Standard
14.3.1 Single Wavelength Interferometry for Gauge Blocks
14.4 Comb Generation and Gauge Block Calibration
14.4.1 Measurement of Gauge Block with Optical Comb
14.4.2 Distance Measurement with Frequency Comb
14.5 Modulated Frequency-Displacement Sensor
14.5.1 Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave Laser Radar
14.6 Displacement Measurement with Interferometry
14.6.1 Two-Frequency Laser Interferometer for Displacement Measurement
14.7 Angle Interferometer
14.8 Moiré Technique for Displacement Measurement
14.9 Displacement Distribution Measurement
14.9.1 Hologram Interferometry
14.9.2 Measurement of Amplitude of Vibration
14.9.3 Electronic Detection: Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry/Digital Speckle Pattern Interferometry and Speckle Photography
14.10 Moiré Techniques
14.10.1 Measurement of In-Plane Displacement/ Deformation
14.10.2 Two-Dimensional In-Plane Displacement Measurement
14.10.3 High Sensitivity In-Plane Displacement Measurement
14.10.4 Measurement of Out-of-Plane Component
14.10.4.1 Shadow Moiré Method
14.10.4.2 Projection Moiré
14.10.5 Measurement of Amplitudes of Vibration
14.10.6 Reflection Moiré Method
14.10.7 Slope Determination for Dynamic Events
14.11 Digital Image Correlation
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