Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems 3rd Edition by Charles Kutscher, Jana Milford, Frank Kreith ISBN 1498788922 9781498788922

Contributors

1. Introduction to Sustainable Energy

1.1 Sustainability Principles

1.1.1 Energy Crisis: Security Issues

1.1.2 Sustainable Development

1.1.3 Sustainability Principles in Practice

1.1.4 Challenges for Sustainability Engineering

1.2 Carrying Capacity and Exponential Growth

1.2.1 Population Issue

1.2.2 Water Issue

1.2.3 Food Supply Issues

1.2.4 Per Capita Energy Use

1.2.5 Mathematics of Exponential Growth

1.3 Context for Sustainable Energy

1.3.1 Historical Energy Development in the United States

1.3.2 Current Energy Use

1.3.3 Future Energy Scenarios for the United States

1.4 Key Sustainability Considerations

1.4.1 The Challenge of Climate Change

1.4.2 Energy Economic Efficiency

1.4.3 Energy Return on Energy Invested

1.4.4 Cost of Energy Production

1.4.5 Other Costs of Energy Development

1.5 Energy Efficiency and Conservation

1.5.1 Energy End-Use Demand Reduction in Buildings

1.5.2 Energy End-Use Demand Reduction in Transportation

1.5.3 Energy Management in Industry and Manufacturing

1.6 Conventional Energy

1.6.1 Fossil Fuels

1.6.2 Nuclear Power

1.7 Renewable Energy

1.7.1 Wind Energy

1.7.2 Solar Photovoltaics

1.7.3 Solar Thermal

1.7.4 Ocean and Geothermal Energy

1.7.5 Biomass and Biofuel

1.7.6 Hydroelectric Generation

1.8 Hydrogen

1.9 NREL System Advisor Model

Energy Units and Conversion Factors

Problems

Discussion Questions

Online Resources

References

Suggested Readings

2. Economics of Energy Generation and Conservation Systems

2.1 Unit Cost of Energy

2.2 Payback Period

2.3 Time Value of Money

2.4 Inflation

2.5 Total Life Cycle Costs

2.6 Internal Rate of Return

2.7 Capital Recovery Factor

2.8 Levelized Cost of Energy

2.9 Societal and Environmental Costs

Problems

References

3. Energy Systems Analysis Methodologies

3.1 Life Cycle Approach

3.2 Process Chain Analysis

3.3 Input–Output (I/O) Analysis

3.4 Embedded Energy

3.5 Energy Return on Energy Invested

3.5.1 Calculation of EROI

3.5.2 EROI and Energy Budgets

3.5.3 EROI for a Wind Energy System

3.6 Greenhouse Gas Accounting

Problems

References

4. Energy Use and Efficiency in Buildings and Industry

4.1 Background

4.2 Energy Audits and Energy Management

4.3 Buildings

4.3.1 Calculations of Heating and Hot Water Loads in Buildings

4.3.1.1 Calculation of Heat Loss

4.3.1.2 Internal Heat Sources in Buildings

4.3.1.3 Degree-Day Method

4.3.1.4 Service Hot Water Load Calculation

4.3.2 Cooling Requirements for Buildings

4.3.3 Vapor-Compression Cycle

4.3.4 Evaporative Cooling

4.3.5 Energy Efficiency in Commercial Buildings

4.3.5.1 Commercial Buildings Case Studies

4.3.6 Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings

4.3.6.1 Residential Case Study: Net-Zero Habitat for Humanity House

4.3.7 Zero-Energy Urban Districts

4.4 Industrial Energy Efficiency

4.4.1 Background

4.4.2 Improving Industrial Processes

4.4.3 Improvements in Industrial Equipment

Problems

References

5. Electricity Supply Systems

5.1 Historical Development of the U.S. Electric Power System

5.2 Electrical Transmission

5.3 The Electric Grid and Electricity Markets

5.3.1 Rate Structures

5.3.2 Electricity Markets

5.3.2.1 Energy Market

5.3.2.2 Capacity Market

5.3.2.3 Ancillary Services Market

5.3.2.4 Financial Transmission Rights Market

5.4 Grid Operations

5.5 Integration of Variable Renewable Energy into the Grid

5.6 Demand Response and Transactional Controls

Problems

References

6. Fossil Fuels

6.1 Fossil Fuel Resources and Extraction

6.1.1 Coal

6.1.2 Natural Gas

6.1.3 Petroleum

6.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion and Energy Conversion Technologies

6.2.1 Heat of Combustion

6.2.2 Fossil Fuel Use for Heat

6.2.3 Electricity Generation from Pulverized Coal

6.2.4 Electricity Generation from Natural Gas

6.2.5 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

6.3 Air Pollution from Fossil Fuel Combustion

6.3.1 Local and Regional Scale Air Pollution

6.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change

6.3.3 Carbon Capture and Sequestration

6.3.4 Leaving It in the Ground

Problems

References

7. Nuclear Energy

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Fission Mechanism

7.3 Available Nuclear Resources

7.3.1 Uranium Resources

7.3.2 Plutonium

7.4 Reactor Types

7.4.1 Pressurized-Water Reactors (PWRs)

7.4.2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs)

7.4.3 Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated Reactor

7.5 Nuclear Waste Management and Disposal

7.6 Spent Fuel Storage and Reprocessing

7.7 Nuclear Power Plant Accidents

7.8 Current Status and Cost of Nuclear Technology

7.9 Next-Generation Nuclear Technologies

Discussion Questions

Acknowledgment

References

8. Wind Energy

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Environmental Impact

8.2.1 Noise and Visual Impact

8.2.2 Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land, and Water Use

8.2.3 Bird and Bat Fatalities

8.3 Power and Energy of Wind

8.4 Coefficient of Performance

8.5 Aerodynamics

8.6 Wind Characteristics

8.6.1 Wind Generation

8.6.2 Distribution of Wind

8.6.3 Wind Speed Increasing with Height

8.6.4 Log Law Wind Speed Profile

8.6.5 Power Law Wind Speed Profile

8.6.6 Probability of Observing a Given Wind Speed

8.7 Turbine Performance

8.7.1 Control Schemes

8.8 Levelized Cost of Energy for a Wind Turbine

8.9 Wind Farms

8.10 Offshore Wind Energy

8.11 System Advisor Model for Wind Farm Analysis

8.12 Additional Topics for Study

Acknowledgment

Problems

References

9. Capturing Solar Energy through Biomass

9.1 Biomass Production and Land Use

9.1.1 Waste Materials

9.1.2 Energy Crops

9.1.3 Algae

9.1.4 Land Use for Biomass Production

9.1.5 Important Properties of Biomass

9.2 Biomass Process Economics and Technology

9.2.1 Biomass Process Economics

9.2.2 Conversion of Biomass to Gaseous Fuels

9.2.2.1 Biomass to Biogas

9.2.2.2 Biomass to Synthetic Gas

9.2.3 Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels

9.2.3.1 Corn Ethanol

9.2.3.2 Cellulosic Ethanol

9.2.3.3 Biomass Fermentation to Alternative Fuels

9.2.3.4 Biomass to Fischer–Tropsch Liquids

9.2.3.5 Biomass Pyrolysis Oil to Gasoline and Diesel

9.2.3.6 Compressed Gases as Transportation Fuel

9.2.3.7 Modern Concepts in Biofuel Conversion

9.2.4 Conversion of Biomass to Electricity

9.2.4.1 Direct Combustion

9.2.4.2 Combustion Equipment

9.2.4.3 Biomass Cofiring

9.2.5 Fossil and Biomass Fuel Properties

9.3 Use of Biomass in Developing Communities

9.4 Conclusions

Problems

References

10. Fundamentals of Solar Radiation

10.1 Physics of the Sun and Its Energy Transport

10.2 Thermal Radiation Fundamentals

10.2.1 Black-Body Radiation

10.2.2 Radiation Function Tables

10.2.3 Intensity of Radiation and Shape Factor

10.2.4 Transmission of Radiation through a Medium

10.3 Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

10.3.1 Solar Time and Angles

10.3.2 Sun-Path Diagram

10.3.3 Shadow-Angle Protractor

10.4 Solar Radiation

10.4.1 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

10.5 Estimation of Terrestrial Solar Radiation

10.5.1 Atmospheric Extinction of Solar Radiation

10.5.2 Solar Radiation on Clear Days

10.5.3 Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface

10.6 TMY Data to Determine Solar Radiation

10.7 Measurement of Solar Radiation

10.7.1 Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation and Sunshine

10.7.2 Detectors for Solar Radiation Instrumentation

10.7.3 Measurement of Sunshine Duration

10.7.4 Measurement of Spectral Solar Radiation

10.7.5 National Solar Radiation Database

Problems

References

11. Photovoltaics

11.1 Semiconductors

11.1.1 p–n Junction

11.1.2 Photovoltaic Effect

11.2 Analysis of Photovoltaic Cells

11.2.1 Efficiency of Solar Cells

11.2.2 Multijunction Solar Cells

11.2.3 Design of a Photovoltaic System

11.3 Manufacture of Solar Cells and Panels

11.3.1 Single Crystal and Polycrystalline Cells

11.3.2 Amorphous Silicon

11.4 Design for Remote Photovoltaic Applications

11.4.1 Estimation of Loads and Load Profiles

11.4.2 Estimation of Available Solar Radiation

11.4.3 PV System Sizing

11.4.4 Water Pumping Applications

11.5 Thin-Film PV Technology

11.6 Multilayer PV Technology

11.7 Today’s PV Market

11.8 Using System Advisor Model (SAM) for PV Performance Estimates

Problems

References

Suggested Readings

12. Solar Thermal Collectors and Systems

12.1 Radiation Properties of Materials

12.1.1 Selective Surfaces

12.1.2 Reflective Surfaces

12.2 Energy Balance for a Flat Plate Collector

12.3 Experimental Testing of Collectors

12.3.1 Testing Standards for Solar Thermal Collectors

12.4 Evacuated Tube Collectors

12.5 Transpired Air Collectors

12.6 Concentrating Solar Collectors

12.6.1 Line-Focus Concentrators

12.6.1.1 Parabolic Troughs

12.6.1.2 Linear Fresnel Collectors

12.6.2 Point-Focus Concentrators

12.7 Solar Domestic Hot Water, Space Heating, and Cooling Systems

12.7.1 Solar Thermosyphon Water Heating

12.7.2 Forced-Circulation Hot Water Systems

12.7.3 Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems for Buildings

12.7.4 Passive Solar Heating Systems

12.7.5 Solar Cooling Systems

12.8 Solar Thermal Power Plants

12.8.1 Parabolic Trough-Based Power Plants

12.8.2 Power Towers

12.9 Solar Industrial Process Heat

Problems

References

13. Ocean, Hydropower, and Geothermal Energy Conversion

13.1 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

13.1.1 Closed-Cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

13.1.2 Open-Cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

13.1.3 Direct Contact Evaporation and Condensation

13.1.4 Comparison of Open- and Closed-Cycle OTEC Systems

13.1.5 Cold-Water Pipe and Pumping Requirements

13.1.6 Economics

13.2 Tidal Energy

13.3 Wave Energy

13.3.1 Deep Water Wave Power

13.3.2 Wave Power Devices

13.4 Hydropower

13.5 Geothermal Energy

13.5.1 Geothermal Power

13.5.1.1 Current Commercial Geothermal Power Technologies

13.5.1.2 Technology Status

13.5.2 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy

Problems

References

14. Storage Technologies

14.1 Overview of Storage Technology

14.1.1 Applications

14.1.2 Technology Characterization

14.2 Mechanical Technologies

14.2.1 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage

14.2.1.1 Turbines

14.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage

14.2.3 Flywheels

14.3 Direct Electrical Technologies

14.3.1 Ultracapacitors

14.3.2 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage

14.4 Fundamentals of Batteries and Fuel Cells

14.4.1 Principles of Battery Operation

14.4.2 Cell Physics

14.5 Rechargeable Batteries

14.5.1 Lead-Acid Batteries

14.5.2 Nickel Metal (Ni-Cd and Ni-MH)

14.5.3 Lithium Ion

14.5.4 Flow Batteries

14.6 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen

14.6.1 Principles of Fuel Cell Operation

14.6.2 Types of Fuel Cells

14.6.3 Generation of Hydrogen

14.6.4 Storage and Transport

14.6.5 Thermodynamics and Economics

14.7 Thermal Energy Storage

14.7.1 Sensible Heat

14.7.2 Phase Change Heat Storage

14.7.3 Thermochemical Storage

14.7.4 Applications

14.7.5 Thermal Storage for Concentrating Collector Systems

14.7.6 Overnight Storage for Buildings and Domestic Hot Water

14.8 Virtual Storage in the Electric Transmission Grid

Problems

References

15. Transportation

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Overview of Transportation Systems and Energy Use

15.3 Well-to-Wheels Analysis

15.4 Biofuels

15.5 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

15.6 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

15.7 Combining HEVs or PHEVs with Biofuels

15.7.1 Petroleum Requirement

15.7.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions

15.8 Future All-Electric System

15.9 Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel

15.10 Hydrogen for Transportation

Problems

References

Online Resources

Index