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ISBN 10: 1498760007
ISBN 13: 9781498760003
Author: Lewis Blackburn, Thomas Domin
This fourth edition of a bestseller covers the technological fundamentals of power system protection. Featuring refinements and additions to accommodate recent advances, the text describes analysis of protective systems during system disturbances and examines how regulations impact the way protective relaying systems are designed, applied, set, and monitored. Containing an expanded discussion of intertie protection requirements at dispersed generation facilities, it explores smarter, more flexible protective systems yet provides practical information on an array of equipment vintages to reflect the state of power systems today.
Protective Relaying Principles and Applications 4th Table of contents:
Chapter 1 Introduction and General Philosophies
1.1 Introduction and Definitions
1.2 Typical Protective Relays and Relay Systems
1.3 Typical Power Circuit Breakers
1.4 Nomenclature and Device Numbers
1.5 Typical Relay and Circuit Breaker Connections
1.6 Basic Objectives of System Protection
1.6.1 Reliability
1.6.2 Selectivity
1.6.3 Speed
1.6.4 Simplicity
1.6.5 Economics
1.6.6 General Summary
1.7 Factors Affecting the Protection System
1.7.1 Economics
1.7.2 Personality Factor
1.7.3 Location of Disconnecting and Input Devices
1.7.4 Available Fault Indicators
1.8 Classification of Relays
1.8.1 Protective Relays
1.8.2 Regulating Relays
1.8.3 Reclosing, Synchronism Check, and Synchronizing Relays
1.8.4 Monitoring Relays
1.8.5 Auxiliary Relays
1.8.6 Other Relay Classifications
1.9 Protective Relay Performance
1.9.1 Correct Operation
1.9.2 Incorrect Operation
1.9.3 No Conclusion
1.9.4 Tracking Relay Performance
1.10 Principles of Relay Application
1.11 Information for Application
1.11.1 System Configuration
1.11.2 Impedance and Connection of the Power Equipment, System Frequency, System Voltage, and System Phase Sequence
1.11.3 Existing Protection and Problems
1.11.4 Operating Procedures and Practices
1.11.5 Importance of the System Equipment Being Protected
1.11.6 System Fault Study
1.11.7 Maximum Loads and System Swing Limits
1.11.8 Current and Voltage Transformer Locations, Connections, and Ratios
1.11.9 Future Expansion
1.12 Structural Changes within the Electric Power Industry
1.13 Reliability and Protection Standards
1.13.1 Regulatory Agencies
Bibliography
Chapter 2 Fundamental Units: Per-Unit and Percent Values
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Per-Unit and Percent Definitions
2.3 Advantages of Per Unit and Percent
2.4 General Relations between Circuit Quantities
2.5 Base Quantities
2.6 Per-Unit and Percent Impedance Relations
2.7 Per-Unit and Percent Impedances of Transformer Units
2.7.1 Transformer Bank Example
2.8 Per-Unit and Percent Impedances of Generators
2.9 Per-Unit and Percent Impedances of Overhead Lines
2.10 Changing Per-Unit (Percent) Quantities to Different Bases
2.10.1 Example: Base Conversion with Equation 2.34
2.10.2 Example: Base Conversion Requiring Equation 2.33
Bibliography
3 Phasors and Polarity
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phasors
3.2.1 Phasor Representation
3.2.2 Phasor Diagrams for Sinusoidal Quantities
3.2.3 Combining Phasors
3.2.4 Phasor Diagrams Require a Circuit Diagram
3.2.5 Nomenclature for Current and Voltage
3.2.5.1 Current and Flux
3.2.5.2 Voltage
3.2.6 Phasor Diagram
3.3 Circuit and Phasor Diagrams for a Balanced Three-Phase Power System
3.4 Phasor and Phase Rotation
3.5 Polarity
3.5.1 Transformer Polarity
3.5.2 Relay Polarity
3.6 Application of Polarity for Phase-Fault Directional Sensing
3.6.1 90°–60° Connection for Phase-Fault Protection
3.7 Directional Sensing for Ground Faults: Voltage Polarization
3.8 Directional Sensing for Ground Faults: Current Polarization
3.9 Other Directional-Sensing Connections
3.10 Application Aspects of Directional Relaying
3.11 Summary
4 Symmetrical Components: A Review
4.1 Introduction and Background
4.2 Positive-Sequence Set
4.3 Nomenclature Convenience
4.4 Negative-Sequence Set
4.5 Zero-Sequence Set
4.6 General Equations
4.7 Sequence Independence
4.8 Positive-Sequence Sources
4.9 Sequence Networks
4.9.1 Positive-Sequence Network
4.9.2 Negative-Sequence Network
4.9.3 Zero-Sequence Network
4.9.4 Sequence Network Reduction
4.10 shunt Unbalance Sequence Network Interconnections
4.10.1 Fault Impedance
4.10.2 Substation and Tower-Footing Impedance
4.10.3 Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
4.10.4 Sequence Interconnections for Single-Phase-to-Ground Faults
4.10.5 Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase Faults
4.10.6 Sequence Interconnections for Double-Phase-to-Ground Faults
4.10.7 Other Sequence Interconnections for Shunt System Conditions
4.11 Example: Fault Calculations on a Typical System Shown in Figure 4.16
4.11.1 Three-Phase Fault at Bus G
4.11.2 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault at Bus G
4.12 example: Fault Calculation for Autotransformers
4.12.1 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault at H Calculation
4.13 Example: Open-Phase Conductor
4.14 example: Open-Phase Falling to Ground on One Side
4.15 Series and Simultaneous Unbalances
4.16 Overview
4.16.1 Voltage and Current Phasors for Shunt Faults
4.16.2 System Voltage Profiles during Faults
4.16.3 unbalanced Currents in the Unfaulted Phases for Phase-to-Ground Faults in Loop Systems
4.16.4 voltage and Current Fault Phasors for All Combinations of the Different Faults
4.17 Summary
Bibliography
Appendix 4.1 Short-Circuit MVA and Equivalent Impedance
A.4.1-1Three-Phase Faults
A.4.1-2Single-Phase-to-Ground Faults
Example
Appendix 4.2 Impedance and Sequence Connections for Transformer Banks
A.4.2-1Two-Winding Transformer Banks
Example
Case 1
Case 2
A.4.2-2Three-Winding and Autotransformer Banks
Appendix 4.3 sequence Phase Shifts through Wye–Delta Transformer Banks
A.4.3-1Summary
Appendix 4.4 Impedance of Overhead Lines
A.4.4-1Resistance of Overhead Lines
A.4.4-2Inductive Reactance of a Single Conductor over Earth
A.4.4-3Mutual Inductive Reactance of Two Conductors over Earth
A.4.4-4Impedance of Three-Phase Overhead Lines
A.4.4-4.1Three-Phase Overhead Line: No Ground Wires (Lossless Earth)
A.4.4-5GMR and GMD Concepts: Three-Phase Overhead Lines
A.4.4-6three-Phase Overhead Line: Impact of Ground Wires and Earth Resistance
Appendix 4.5 Zero-Sequence Impedance of Transformers
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
5 Relay Input Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Equivalent Circuits of Current and Voltage Transformers
5.3 CTs for Protection Applications
5.4 CT Performance on a Symmetrical AC Component
5.4.1 Performance by Classic Analysis
5.4.2 Performance by CT Characteristic Curves
5.4.3 Performance by ANSI/IEEE Standard Accuracy Classes
5.4.4 IEC Standard Accuracy Classes
5.5 Secondary Burdens during Faults
5.6 CT Selection and Performance Evaluation for Phase Faults
5.6.1 CT Ratio Selection for Phase-Connected Equipment
5.6.2 Select the Relay Tap for the Phase–Overcurrent Relays
5.6.3 Determine the Total Connected Secondary Load (Burden) in Ohms
5.6.4 Determine the CT Performance Using the ANSI/IEEE Standard
5.6.4.1 When Using a Class T CT
5.6.4.2 When Using a Class C CT and Performance by the ANSI/IEEE Standard
5.6.4.3 When Using a Class C CT and Performance with the CT Excitation Curves
5.7 Performance Evaluation for Ground Relays
5.8 Effect of Unenergized CTs on Performance
5.9 Flux Summation Current Transformer
5.10 Current Transformer Performance on the DC Component
5.11 Summary: Current Transformer Performance Evaluation
5.11.1 Saturation on Symmetrical AC Current Input Resulting from the CT Characteristics and the Secondary Load
5.11.2 Saturation by the DC Offset of the Primary AC Current
5.12 Current Transformer Residual Flux and Subsidence Transients
5.13 Auxiliary Current Transformers in CT Secondary Circuits
5.14 Voltage Transformers for Protective Applications
5.15 Optical Sensors
Bibliography
6 Protection Fundamentals and Basic Design Principles
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Differential Principle
6.3 Overcurrent–Distance Protection and the Basic Protection Problem
6.3.1 Time Solution
6.3.2 Communication Solution
6.4 Backup Protection: Remote versus Local
6.5 Basic Design Principles
6.5.1 Time–Overcurrent Relays
6.5.2 Instantaneous Current–Voltage Relays
6.5.3 Directional-Sensing Power Relays
6.5.4 Polar Unit
6.5.5 Phase Distance Relays
Balanced Beam Type: Impedance Characteristic
6.5.6 R–X Diagram
6.5.7 Mho Characteristic
6.5.8 Single-Phase Mho Units
6.5.9 Polyphase Mho Units
6.5.9.1 Three-Phase Fault Units
6.5.9.2 Phase-to-Phase Fault Units
6.5.10 Other Mho Units
6.5.11 Reactance Units
6.6 Ground Distance Relays
6.7 solid-State Microprocessor Relays
6.8 summary
Bibliography
7 System-Grounding Principles
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ungrounded Systems
7.3 Transient Overvoltages
7.4 Grounded-Detection Methods for Ungrounded Systems
7.4.1 Three-Voltage Transformers
7.4.2 Single-Voltage Transformers
7.5 High-Impedance Grounding Systems
7.5.1 Resonant Grounding
7.5.2 High-Resistance Grounding
7.5.3 Example: Typical High-Resistance Neutral Grounding
7.5.4 Example: Typical High-Resistance Grounding with Three Distribution Transformers
7.6 System Grounding for Mine or Other Hazardous-Type Applications
7.7 Low-Impedance Grounding
7.7.1 Example: Typical Low-Resistance Neutral Reactor Grounding
7.7.2 Example: Typical Low-Resistance Neutral Resistance Grounding
7.8 Solid (Effective) Grounding
7.8.1 Example: Solid Grounding
7.8.2 Ground Detection on Solid-Grounded Systems
7.9 Ferroresonance in Three-Phase Power Systems
7.9.1 General Summary for Ferroresonance for Distribution Systems
7.9.2 Ferroresonance at High Voltages
7.10 Safety Grounding
7.11 grounding Summary and Recommendations
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Generator Protection/Intertie Protection for Distributed Generation
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Historical Perspectives
8.1.2 Bulk Power Generators
8.1.3 Distributed Generators
8.1.4 Potential Problems
8.2 Generator Connections and Overview of Typical Protection
8.3 Stator Phase-Fault Protection for All Size Generators
8.3.1 Differential Protection (87) for Small kVA (MVA) Generators
8.3.2 Multi-CT Differential Protection (87) for All Size Generators
8.3.3 High-Impedance Voltage Differential Protection for Generators
8.3.4 Direct-Connected Generator Current Differential Example
8.3.5 Phase Protection for Small Generators That Do Not Use Differentials
8.3.6 Unit Generator Current Differential (87) Example for Phase Protection
8.4 Unit Transformer Phase-Fault Differential Protection (87TG)
8.5 Phase-Fault Backup Protection (51 V) or (21)
8.5.1 Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restraint Time–Overcurrent (51 V) Backup Protection
8.5.2 Phase Distance (21) Backup Protection
8.6 Negative-Sequence Current Backup Protection
8.7 Stator Ground-Fault Protection
8.7.1 Ground-Fault Protection for Single Medium or Small Wye-Connected Generators (Type 1a: See Figure 8.3 and Figure 8.11)
8.7.2 Ground-Fault Protection of Multiple Medium or Small Wye- or Delta-Connected Generators (Type 2: See Figure 8.2 and Figure 8.12)
8.7.3 Ground-Fault Protection for Ungrounded Generators
8.7.4 Ground-Fault Protection for Very Small, Solidly Grounded Generators
8.7.5 Ground-Fault Protection for Unit-Connected Generators Using High-Impedance Neutral Grounding (Type 1b: See Figure 8.5)
8.7.6 Added Protection for 100% Generator Ground Protection with High-Resistance Grounding
8.7.7 High-Voltage Ground-Fault Coupling Can Produce V0 in High-Impedance Grounding Systems
8.7.8 Ground-Fault Protection for Multidirect-Connected Generators Using High-Resistance Grounding
8.8 Multiple Generator Units Connected Directly to a Transformer: Grounding and Protection
8.9 Field Ground Protection (64)
8.10 Generator Off-Line Protection
8.11 Reduced or Lost Excitation Protection (40)
8.11.1 Loss of Excitation Protection with Distance (21) Relays
8.11.2 Loss of Excitation Protection with a Var-Type Relay
8.12 Generator Protection for System Disturbances and Operational Hazards
8.12.1 Loss of Prime Mover: Generator Motoring (32)
8.12.2 Overexcitation: Volts per Hertz Protection (24)
8.12.3 Inadvertent Energization: Nonsynchronized Connection (67)
8.12.4 Breaker Pole Flashover (61)
8.12.5 Thermal Overload (49)
8.12.6 Off-Frequency Operation
8.12.7 Overvoltage
8.12.8 Loss of Synchronism: Out-of-Step
8.12.9 Subsynchronous Oscillations
8.13 Loss of Voltage Transformer Signal
8.14 Generator Breaker Failure
8.15 Excitation System Protection and Limiters
8.15.1 Field Grounds
8.15.2 Field Overexcitation
8.15.3 Field Underexcitation
8.15.4 Practical Considerations
8.16 Synchronous Condenser Protection
8.17 Generator-Tripping Systems
8.18 Station Auxiliary Service System
8.19 Distributed Generator Intertie Protection
8.19.1 Power Quality Protection
8.19.2 Power System Fault Protection
8.19.3 System Protection for Faults on Distributed Generator Facilities
8.19.4 Other Intertie Protection Considerations
8.19.5 Induction Generators/Static Inverters/Wind Farms
8.19.5.1 Induction Generators
8.19.5.2 Inverters
8.19.5.3 Wind Farms
8.19.6 Practical Considerations of Distributed Generation
8.20 Protection Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 9 Transformer, Reactor, and Shunt Capacitor Protection
9.1 Transformers
9.2 Factors Affecting Differential Protection
9.3 False Differential Current
9.3.1 Magnetization Inrush
9.3.2 Overexcitation
9.3.3 Current Transformer Saturation
9.4 Transformer Differential Relay Characteristics
9.5 Application and Connection of Transformer Differential Relays
9.6 Example: Differential Protection Connections for a Two-Winding Wye–Delta Transformer Bank
9.6.1 First Step: Phasing
9.6.2 Second Step: CT Ratio and Tap Selections
9.7 Load Tap-Changing Transformers
9.8 Example: Differential Protection Connections for Multiwinding Transformer Bank
9.9 Application of Auxiliaries for Current Balancing
9.10 Paralleling CTs in Differential Circuits
9.11 Special Connections for Transformer Differential Relays
9.12 Differential Protection for Three-Phase Banks of Single-Phase Transformer Units
9.13 Ground (Zero-Sequence) Differential Protection for Transformers
9.14 Equipment for Transfer Trip Systems
9.14.1 Fault Switch
9.14.2 Communication Channel
9.14.3 Limited Fault-Interruption Device
9.15 Mechanical Fault Detection for Transformers
9.15.1 Gas Detection
9.15.2 Sudden Pressure
9.16 Grounding Transformer Protection
9.17 Ground Differential Protection with Directional Relays
9.18 Protection of Regulating Transformers
9.19 Transformer Overcurrent Protection
9.20 Transformer Overload-Through-Fault-Withstand Standards
9.21 Examples: Transformer Overcurrent Protection
9.21.1 Industrial Plant or Similar Facility Served by a 2500 kVA, 12 kV: 480 V Transformer with 5.75% Impedance
9.21.2 Distribution or Similar Facility Served by a 7500 kVA, 115: 12 kV Transformer with 7.8% Impedance
9.21.3 Substation Served by a 12/16/20 MVA, 115: 12.5 kV Transformer with 10% Impedance
9.22 Transformer Thermal Protection
9.23 Overvoltage on Transformers
9.24 Summary: Typical Protection for Transformers
9.24.1 Individual Transformer Units
9.24.2 Parallel Transformer Units
9.24.3 Redundancy Requirements for Bulk Power Transformers
9.25 Reactors
9.25.1 Types of Reactors
9.25.2 General Application of Shunt Reactors
9.25.3 Reactor Protection
9.26 Capacitors
9.27 Power System Reactive Requirements
9.28 Shunt Capacitor Applications
9.29 Capacitor Bank Designs
9.30 Distribution Capacitors Bank Protection
9.31 Designs and Limitations of Large Capacitor Banks
9.32 Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
9.33 Series Capacitor Bank Protection
9.34 Capacitor Bank Protection Application Issues
Bibliography
Appendix 9.1 Application of Digital Transformer Differential Relays
A.9.1-1Current Magnitude Compensation
A.9.1-2Phase Angle Compensation
A.9.1-3 Other Features of Digital Transformer Differential Relays
Chapter 10 Bus Protection
10.1 Introduction: Typical Bus Arrangements
10.2 Single Breaker–Single Bus
10.3 Single Buses Connected with Bus Ties
10.4 Main and Transfer Buses with Single Breakers
10.5 Single Breaker–Double Bus
10.6 Double Breaker–Double Bus
10.7 Ring Bus
10.8 Breaker-and-Half Bus
10.9 Transformer–Bus Combination
10.10 General Summary of Buses
10.11 Differential Protection for Buses
10.11.1 Multirestraint Current Differential
10.11.2 High-Impedance Voltage Differential
10.11.3 Air-Core Transformer Differential
10.11.4 Moderate High-Impedance Differential
10.12 Other Bus Differential Systems
10.12.1 Time–Overcurrent Differential
10.12.2 Directional Comparison Differential
10.12.3 Partial Differential
10.12.4 Short Time-Delay Scheme: Instantaneous Blocking
10.13 Ground-Fault Bus
10.14 Protection Summary
10.15 Bus Protection: Practical Considerations
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Motor Protection
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Potential Motor Hazards
11.3 Motor Characteristics Involved in Protection
11.4 Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit
11.5 General Motor Protection
11.6 Phase-Fault Protection
11.7 Differential Protection
11.8 Ground-Fault Protection
11.9 Thermal and Locked-Rotor Protection
11.10 Locked-Rotor Protection for Large Motors (21)
11.11 System Unbalance and Motors
11.12 Unbalance and Phase Rotation Protection
11.13 Undervoltage Protection
11.14 Bus Transfer and Reclosing
11.15 Repetitive Starts and Jogging Protection
11.16 Multifunction Microprocessor Motor Protection Units
11.17 Synchronous Motor Protection
11.18 Summary: Typical Protection for Motors
11.19 Practical Considerations of Motor Protection
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Line Protection
12.1 Classifications of Lines and Feeders
12.2 Line Classifications for Protection
12.2.1 Distribution Lines
12.2.2 Transmission and Subtransmission Lines
12.3 Techniques and Equipment for Line Protection
12.3.1 Fuses
12.3.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers
12.3.3 Sectionalizers
12.3.4 Coordinating Time Interval
12.4 Coordination Fundamentals and General Setting Criteria
12.4.1 Phase Time–Overcurrent Relay Setting
12.4.2 Ground Time–Overcurrent Relay Setting
12.4.3 Phase and Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay Setting
12.5 Distribution Feeder, Radial Line Protection, and Coordination
12.6 Example: Coordination for a Typical Distribution Feeder
12.6.1 Practical Distribution Coordination Considerations
12.7 Distributed Generators and Other Sources Connected to Distribution Lines
12.8 Example: Coordination for a Loop System
12.9 Instantaneous Trip Application for a Loop System
12.10 Short-Line Applications
12.11 Network and Spot Network Systems
12.12 Distance Protection for Phase Faults
12.13 Distance Relay Applications for Tapped and Multiterminal Lines
12.14 Voltage Sources for Distance Relays
12.15 Distance Relay Applications in Systems Protected by Inverse-Time–Overcurrent Relays
12.16 Ground-Fault Protection for Lines
12.17 Distance Protection for Ground Faults and Direction Overcurrent Comparisons
12.18 Fault Resistance and Relaying
12.19 Directional Sensing for Ground–Overcurrent Relays
12.20 Polarizing Problems with Autotransformers
12.21 Voltage Polarization Limitations
12.22 Dual Polarization for Ground Relaying
12.23 Ground Directional Sensing with Negative Sequence
12.24 Mutual Coupling and Ground Relaying
12.25 Ground Distance Relaying with Mutual Induction
12.26 Long EHV Series-Compensated Line Protection
12.27 Backup: Remote, Local, and Breaker Failure
12.28 Summary: Typical Protection for Lines
12.29 Practical Considerations of Line Protection
Bibliography
13 Pilot Protection
13.1 Introduction
13.2 PILOT System Classifications
13.3 Protection Channel Classifications
13.4 Directional Comparison Blocking Pilot Systems
13.5 Directional Comparison Unblocking Pilot System
13.5.1 Normal-Operating Condition (No Faults)
13.5.2 Channel Failure
13.5.3 External Fault on Bus G or in the System to the Left
13.5.4 Internal Faults in the Protected Zone
13.6 Directional Comparison Overreaching Transfer Trip Pilot Systems
13.6.1 External Fault on Bus G or in the System to the Left
13.6.2 Internal Faults in the Protected Zone
13.7 Directional Comparison Underreaching Transfer Trip Pilot Systems
13.7.1 Zone Acceleration
13.8 Phase Comparison: Pilot Wire Relaying (Wire Line Channels)
13.9 Phase Comparison: Audio Tone or Fiber-Optic Channels
13.9.1 External Fault on Bus H or in the System to the Right
13.9.2 Internal Faults in the Protected Zone
13.10 Segregated Phase Comparison Pilot Systems
13.11 Single-Pole–Selective-Pole Pilot Systems
13.12 Directional Wave Comparison Systems
13.13 Digital Current Differential
13.14 Pilot Scheme Enhancements
13.14.1 Transient Blocking
13.14.2 Weak Infeed Logic
13.14.3 Breaker Open Keying
13.15 Transfer Trip Systems
13.16 Communication Channels for Protection
13.16.1 Power-Line Carrier: On–Off or Frequency Shift
13.16.2 Pilot Wires: Audio Tone Transmission
13.16.3 Pilot Wires: 50 or 60 Hz Transmission
13.16.4 Digital Channels
13.17 Digital Line Current Differential Systems
13.17.1 characteristics of Line Differential Schemes
13.17.2 Line Differential Issues
13.17.2.1 Current Sample Alignment
13.17.2.2 Current Transformer Saturation
13.17.2.3 Line Charging Current
13.17.2.4 Sensitivity
13.17.3 Line Differential Design Enhancements
13.17.3.1 Sensitivity Enhancement
13.17.3.2 Maintaining Adequate Data Alignment
13.17.3.3 Mitigating Impacts of Current Transformer Saturation
13.17.3.4 Accounting for Line Charging Current
13.17.3.5 Current-Ratio Differential Concept
13.17.4 Line Differential Application
13.18 Pilot Relaying: Operating Experiences
13.19 Summary
Bibliography
Appendix 13.1 Protection of Wire Line Pilot Circuits
14 Stability, Reclosing, Load Shedding, and Trip Circuit Design
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Electric Power and Power Transmission
14.3 Steady-State Operation and Stability
14.4 Transient Operation and Stability
14.5 System Swings and Protection
14.6 Out-of-Step Detection by Distance Relays
14.7 Automatic Line Reclosing
14.8 Distribution Feeder Reclosing
14.9 Subtransmission and Transmission-Line Reclosing
14.10 Reclosing on Lines with Transformers or Reactors
14.11 Automatic Synchronizing
14.12 Frequency Relaying for Load Shedding–Load Saving
14.13 Underfrequency Load-Shedding Design
14.13.1 Underfrequency Load-Shedding Criteria
14.13.2 Underfrequency Load-Shedding Scheme Architecture
14.13.3 Underfrequency Control Scheme Design
14.14 Performance of Underfrequency Load-Shedding Schemes
14.15 Frequency Relaying for Industrial Systems
14.16 Voltage Collapse
14.17 Voltage Collapse Mitigating Techniques
14.18 Protection and Control Trip Circuits
14.19 Substation DC Systems
14.20 Trip Circuit Devices
14.20.1 Auxiliary Relays
14.20.2 Targeting and Seal-In Devices
14.20.3 Switches and Diodes
14.20.4 Trip Coils
14.21 Trip Circuit Design
14.22 Trip Circuit Monitoring and Alarms
14.23 Special Protection Schemes
14.24 Practical Considerations: Special Protection Schemes
Bibliography
Chapter 15 Microprocessor Applications and Substation Automation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Microprocessor-Based Relay Designs
15.3 Programmable Logic Controllers
15.4 Application of Microprocessor Relays
15.5 Programming of Microprocessor Relaying
15.5.1 Boolean Algebra
15.5.2 Control Equation Elements
15.5.3 Binary Elements
15.5.4 Analog Quantities
15.5.5 Math Operators
15.5.6 Settings
15.6 Attributes of Microprocessor-Based Relays
15.7 Protection Enhancements
15.7.1 Distribution Protection Systems
15.7.2 Transmission Protection Systems
15.8 Multifunctional Capability
15.9 Wiring Simplification
15.10 Event Reports
15.10.1 Types of Event Reports
15.11 Commissioning and Periodic Testing
15.12 Setting Specifications and Documentation
15.13 Fault Location
15.14 Power System Automation
15.15 Practical Observations: Microprocessor Relay Application
Bibliography
16 Improving Protective System Performance
16.1 Performance Measurement Techniques
16.2 Measuring Protective System Performance
16.3 Analyzing Protective System Misoperations
16.3.1 Parameters for Measuring Protective System Performance
16.3.2 Regulatory Issues
16.4 Nerc standard PRC-004
16.5 Procedures for Implementing PRC-004
16.6 Tools for Analyzing Power System Events
16.6.1 Fault Recorders
16.6.2 dynamic Disturbance Recorders
16.6.3 Sequence-of-Events Recorders
16.7 Overview of Major Power Outages
16.7.1 Northeast Blackout (November 9, 1965)
16.7.2 West Coast Blackout (July 2, 1996)
16.7.3 Northeast United States/Canadian Blackout (August 14, 2003)
16.7.4 Florida Blackout (February 26, 2008)
16.7.5 Pacific Southwest Outage (September 8, 2011)
16.7.6 Summary
16.8 Relay Setting Loadability
16.8.1 Three-Terminal Lines
16.8.2 Remote Backup Protection
16.9 Nerc standard PRC-023
16.9.1 Loadability of Distance Relays
16.9.2 Requirements for Transformer Overload Settings
16.9.3 Loadability of Pilot Schemes
16.9.3.1 Loadability of DCB Pilot Schemes
16.9.3.2 Loadability of POTT Pilot Schemes
16.9.4 Switch-On-to-Fault Loadability
16.10 Loadability Limits on Non-BES Lines
16.11 generator Trips during Disturbances
16.12 Protection System Maintenance
16.13 grid Automation: Protection Aspects
16.14 Summary
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